Authentication

ABSTRACT

A method in a first entity for authenticating itself to a second entity by proving to the second entity that it is in possession of a full secret without sending the full secret to the second entity, the method comprising: receiving in the first entity an input from a user, the full secret having been divided into at least a first factor and a second factor and the input relating to the second factor of the full secret; reconstructing in the first entity the full secret from at least the first factor and the input; and carrying out a calculation in the first entity using the reconstructed full secret and sending the results of the calculation to the second entity, wherein the results provide an input to a pairing calculation in the second entity. The second entity carries out the pairing calculation to determine whether the client is in possession of the secret. The first entity may be a client and the second entity may be a server. A trusted authority may have issued the client with the secret and may also have issued the server with another secret to allow it to carry out the calculation to determine whether the client is in possession of its secret.

CROSS-REFERENCE TO RELATED APPLICATIONS

This application is a continuation of U.S. application Ser. No.14/374,046, filed on Jul. 23, 2014, which claims the priority ofPCT/GB2014/051666, filed on May 30, 2014, which claims priority to GreatBritain Application No. 1309702.7, filed on May 30, 2013, the entirecontents of each of which is fully incorporated herein by reference

FIELD OF THE INVENTION

The specification relates to security. More particularly, but notexclusively, it relates to authentication of a first entity to a secondentity.

BACKGROUND OF THE INVENTION

It is basically a solved problem for a server to authenticate itself toa client using standard methods of Public Key cryptography. The PublicKey Infrastructure (PKI) supports the Secure Socket Layer (SSL) protocolwhich in turn enables this functionality. The single-point-of-failure inPKI, and hence the focus of attacks, is the Certification Authority.However this entity is commonly off-line, well defended, and not easilygot at. For a client to authenticate itself to the server is much moreproblematical. The simplest and most common mechanism isUsername/Password. Although not at all satisfactory, the only onus onthe client is to generate and remember a password—and the reality isthat we cannot expect a client to be sufficiently sophisticated or wellorganised to protect larger secrets. However Username/Password as amechanism is breaking down. So-called zero-day attacks on serverscommonly recover files containing information related to passwords, andunless the passwords are of sufficiently high entropy they will befound. The commonly applied patch is to insist that clients adopt long,complex, hard-to-remember passwords. This is essentially a second lineof defence imposed on the client to protect them in the (increasinglylikely) event that the authentication server will be successfullyhacked. Note that in an ideal world a client should be able to use a lowentropy password, as a server can limit the number of attempts theclient can make to authenticate itself.

A proposed alternative is the adoption of multifactor authentication. Inthe simplest case the client must demonstrate possession of both a tokenand a password. The banks have been to the forefront of adopting suchmethods, but the token is invariably a physical device of some kind.Cryptography's embarrassing secret is that to date no completelysatisfactory means has been discovered to implement two-factorauthentication entirely in software.

This patent specification describes not only various ideas andfunctions, but also their creative expression. A portion of thedisclosure of this patent document therefore contains material to whicha claim for copyright is made and notice is hereby given: CertivoxLimited (pursuant to 17 U.S.C. 401). A claim to copyright protection ismade to all protectable expression associated with the embodiments ofthe invention illustrated and described in this patent specification.

The copyright owner has no objection to the facsimile reproduction byanyone of the patent document or the patent disclosure, as it appears inthe Patent and Trademark Office patent file or records, but reserves allother copyright rights whatsoever. No express or implied license underany copyright whatsoever is therefore granted.

SUMMARY OF THE INVENTION

According to an aspect of the invention, there is provided a method of afirst entity authenticating itself to a second entity by proving to thesecond entity that it is in possession of a full secret without sendingthe full secret to the second entity, the method comprising: receivingin the first entity an input from a user, the full secret having beendivided into at least a first factor and a second factor and the inputrelating to the second factor of the secret; reconstructing in the firstentity the full secret from at least the first factor and the input; andcarrying out a calculation in the first entity using the reconstructedfull secret and sending the results of the calculation to the secondentity, wherein the results provide an input to a pairing calculation inthe second entity.

The results may be sent to the second entity to be used by the secondentity to determine whether the first entity is in possession of thesecret. The second entity carries out a calculation to determine whetherthe first entity is in possession of the key and the pairing calculationmay form part of that calculation.

The method may be a computer-implemented method. The first entity may bea client and the second entity may be a back-end server. The client maybe a program run in a browser of a computing device. The input may bereceived from a user. The user may be a person or a computing device.

Consequently, a server can authenticate the client without the clientsending its secret to the server. Moreover, the heavy processinginvolved in the pairing calculation can be carried out in the server.

The secret may have been divided into two factors comprising said firstand second factor, the input may comprise a guess of the second factorand the secret is reconstructed from the first factor and the guess forthe second factor.

The secret may correspond to a point on an algebraic curve and thepairing calculation may comprise a cryptographic pairing on thealgebraic curve. The algebraic curve may be an elliptic curve.Alternatively, it could be a hyper-elliptic curve.

The method may further comprise receiving, in the first entity, achallenge from the second entity and wherein the calculation using therecovered secret may also use the challenge to obtain the results to besent to the second entity.

The calculation in the first entity may comprise calculating in thefirst entity the coordinates of a point on the algebraic curve, from apoint corresponding to the secret, or a point derived from at least apoint corresponding to the secret, and wherein sending the results ofthe calculation to the second entity may comprise sending thecoordinates of the point.

The calculation in the first entity may comprise multiplying, on thealgebraic curve, a point corresponding to the secret, or a point derivedfrom at least a point corresponding to the secret, in the first entityto obtain another point on the algebraic curve and wherein sending theresults of the calculation to the second entity may comprise sending thecoordinates of that other point.

The secret of the first entity may have been issued by a trustedauthority and may be based on the identity of the first entity and amaster secret stored by a trusted authority. The trusted authority maybe an independent entity. The trusted authority may also have issued aseparate secret to the second entity and the second entity may need thesecret to authenticate the first entity. The second entity may use thesecond entity secret in its calculations to authenticate the firstentity.

The method may further comprise generating a random value x in the firstentity, where x is lower than q; calculating A=H₁(ID_(α)) in the firstentity, where ID_(α) is the identity associated with the first entityand H₁ is a hash function that hashes the identity to a point on thealgebraic curve; calculating another point U=xA on the curve in thefirst entity and transmitting ID_(α) and U to the second entity; andreceiving a random value y generated in the second entity, wherein y islower than q, and wherein carrying out said calculation in the firstentity using the reconstructed key and sending the results to the secondentity comprises calculating a new point V=−(x+y)((s−α)A+αA) and sendingV to the second entity. The first factor may correspond to thecoordinates of a point (s−α)A, the input may comprise a value α, theclient secret may be issued by a trusted authority and obtained by thetrusted authority by multiplying the point A corresponding to the clientidentity with a master secret s. The pairing calculation may comprise amapping

₁×

₂→

_(T) where

₁ and

₂ are distinct and q is the order of the groups

₁,

₂ and

_(T).

The method may further comprise receiving a time permit in the firstentity and the calculation using the reconstructed secret may also usethe time permit to obtain the results to send to the second entity. Thetime permit may be issued by the trusted authority and the time permitmay be derived from a time period during which the first entity isentitled to complete the protocol.

Alternatively, the method may further comprise receiving a time permitin the first entity and the calculation using the reconstructed secretmay also use the time permit to obtain the results to send to the secondentity. The time permit may be issued by the trusted authority and thetime permit may be derived from a time period during which the firstentity is entitled to complete the protocol and additional data.

The pairing calculation may form part of a calculation in the secondentity to authenticate the first entity and the method may furthercomprise receiving a response from the second entity indicating that theinput did not correspond to the second factor and inviting the firstentity to try to authenticate again.

The pairing calculation may form part of a calculation in the secondentity to authenticate the first entity and wherein the method mayfurther comprise, in response to the second entity determining that thefirst entity is in possession of the secret, the first entity receivingan indication that the authentication was successful.

The method may further comprise receiving a response from the secondentity and deriving in the first entity an encryption key from a datavalue in the response, the data value in the response being obtainedfrom the results of a pairing of said pairing calculation.

The pairing calculation may comprise a mapping

₁×

₂→

_(T) where

₁ and

₂ are distinct groups and q is the order of the groups

₁,

₂ and

_(T), the results of the calculation may be the coordinates of a point Von the algebraic curve, in

₁, the mapping may take as a first input the point V and take as asecond input a second point on the algebraic curve in

₂, the second point corresponding to a fixed point associated with thesecond entity.

Deriving the key may comprise raising the data value to the power of avalue unknown to the second entity and hashing the results to obtain thekey and the method may further comprise using the key to encryptmessages to the second entity and decrypt messages received from thesecond entity.

The method may further comprise the first entity extracting the secondfactor from the full secret to create the first and the second factor.

The second factor may comprise a Personal Identification number (PIN).It may alternatively comprise a password or a soft biometric.

According to another aspect of the invention, there is also provided acomputer program for a client device for authenticating itself to anauthenticating entity by proving to the entity that it is in possessionof a secret without sending the secret to the entity, the computerprogram comprising instructions that when executed by at least oneprocessor of the client device cause the at least one processor toexecute the method described above.

The computer program may be part of or run in, a browser of the clientdevice. The authenticating entity may be a computing system. Thecomputing system may be an authenticating server.

According to another aspect of the invention, there is also provided anon-transitory tangible computer readable medium storing the computerprogram.

According to another aspect of the invention, there is also provided amethod of authenticating a first entity to a second entity bydetermining that the first entity must be in a possession of a secretwithout the second entity receiving the secret itself, the methodcomprising: receiving in the second entity a result of a calculationcarried out in the first entity, the calculation using the secretreconstructed in the first entity from at least a first factor and asecond factor of the secret; and carrying out a calculation in thesecond entity to determine that the first entity is in possession of thesecret, wherein the calculation comprises a pairing calculation based onthe result received from the first entity.

The method may be a computer-implemented method. The first entity may bea client. The second entity may be a back end server. The client may bea program run in the browser of a device.

The secret may have been divided into two factors comprising said firstand second factor and the secret may be reconstructed from said twofactors.

The first entity secret may correspond to a point on an algebraic curveand the pairing calculation may comprise a pairing on the algebraiccurve. The curve may be an elliptic or a hyper-elliptic curve.

The pairing calculation may take the results from the first entitydirectly as an input. Alternatively, it may use the results from thefirst entity to derive an input to the pairing calculation.

The calculation to determine that the first entity is in possession ofthe first entity secret may also require a second entity secretassociated with the second entity.

The calculation in the second entity may comprise calculating a productof pairings to determine whether the first entity is in possession ofthe secret, the product of pairings comprising a first pairing based onthe result received from the client, and a second pairing based on asecret of the second entity. The product of pairings may be calculatedas a multi-pairing. Alternatively, it may be calculated as two separatepairings that are then multiplied together.

The second entity may determine whether the product of pairings is equalto a predetermined value and may authenticate the first entity if theproduct is equal to the predetermined value.

The secret of the first entity may have been issued by a trustedauthority and may be based on the identity of the first entity and amaster secret stored by a trusted authority and the secret of the secondentity may also have been issued by the trusted authority and may bederived from a fixed point on the curve and said master secret.

The method may further comprise: receiving, from the first entity, theidentity of the first entity and the coordinates of a point U on thealgebraic curve; generating a random value y, lower than q, in thesecond entity and sending to the first entity; calculating A=H₁(ID_(α))in the second entity, where ID_(α) is an identity associated with thefirst entity and H₁ is a hash function that hashes the identity to apoint on an algebraic curve. Receiving the result of the calculationfrom the first entity may comprise receiving the coordinates of a pointV from the first entity, where V=−(x+y)((s−α)A+αA), wherein x is anotherrandom value lower than q and the secret of the first entity is issuedby a trusted authority and corresponds to a point sA wherein s is amaster secret, the at least first factor corresponds to a point (s−α)Aon the algebraic curve and the second factor comprises a value α.Calculating said pairing calculation may comprise calculating a productof pairings comprising a first pairing e(V, Q) and a second pairinge(U+yA, sQ) to obtain g=e(V, Q). e(U+yA, sQ) where Q is a fixed point onthe curve and sQ is another point on the curve corresponding to a secretof the second entity and the first and second pairing is a mapping

₁×

₂→

_(T) where

₁ and

₂ are distinct and q is the order of the groups

₁,

₂ and

_(T). The method may further comprise refusing the connection if g≠1.

The method may further comprise obtaining a time period during which thefirst entity is entitled to complete the protocol and using the timeperiod and the identity of the first entity to derive an input to thesecond pairing.

Alternatively, the method may further comprise obtaining a time periodduring which the first entity is entitled to complete the protocol andadditional data and using the time period, the additional data and theidentity of the first entity to derive an input to the second pairing.

The method may further comprise transmitting a value derived from theresult of the first pairing to the first entity to allow the firstentity to derive an encryption key.

The pairing calculation may include a pairing which is a type-3 mapping

₁×

₂→

_(T) where

₁ and

₂ are distinct and the pairing takes as a first input a first point onthe algebraic curve in

₁, derived by at least one multiplication, on the algebraic curve, of apoint corresponding to the first entity secret or a point derived fromat least the point corresponding to the first entity secret, and takesas a second input a second point on the algebraic curve in

₂, the second point corresponding to a fixed point associated with thesecond entity.

The method may further comprise the second entity calculating anencryption key to be used for further communication between the firstand the second entity, the calculation of the encryption key comprisingcalculating a pairing based on an identity of the first entity and thesecond entity secret. The pairing may take as input a point derived fromthe identity of the client and other data.

The encryption key established in the second entity is the same as theencryption key established in the first entity. A new key may beestablished each time the entities start a new communication session.

The pairing to obtain the encryption key in the second entity may be atype-3 mapping

₁×

₂→

_(T) where

₁ and

₂ are distinct and the pairing takes as a first input a point on thealgebraic curve in

₁, derived by at least one multiplication, on the algebraic curve, of apoint derived from at least a point corresponding to an identity of thefirst entity, and takes as a second input a point on the algebraic curvein

₂ corresponding to the second entity secret.

The second entity may comprise at least two components, each storing apart of the secret of the second entity. The second entity secret can beobtained by adding the two parts together. Carrying out the secondpairing may comprise calculating a pairing in each component, taking asan input its respective part, and then calculating a product of theresults of the two pairings. One of the two components or a separatecomponent of the second entity can carry out the product of the twopairings. The second entity secret may be divided into more than twoparts and the second entity may comprise more than two components forstoring the parts of the secret.

The method may comprise, in response to determining that the firstentity is not in possession of the secret, determining the extent of anyerror in the second factor.

The extent of any error is calculated using the value of g and theequation g=e(U+yA, Q)^(δ) where δ is the extent of the error in thesecond factor. Alternatively, if time permits are used, it may becalculated using g=e(R+yA, Q_(δ)),

The method may further comprise, in response to determining that thefirst entity is not in possession of the secret, inviting the firstentity to attempt to authenticate again, and calculation the value of atotal error score, the value increasing by a variable amount for eachauthentication attempt, the amount varying depending on the extent oferror in the second factor in each authentication attempt. The methodmay further comprise rejecting the connection to the first entity if thevalue of the total error score exceeds a predetermined maximum errorscore. For some types of errors, the variable amount may be zero.

The method may further comprise considering additional informationcomprising at least one out of the location of the first entity, theidentity of the first entity, the IP address and the time ofauthentication, when deciding in the second entity whether to invite thefirst entity to attempt to authenticate again.

The method may further comprise, in response to determining that theerror is of a predetermined type, determining that the first entity isattempting to send a message and determining that message from the errorin the second factor.

The second factor may comprises a PIN. Alternatively, it may comprise apassword or a soft biometric.

The algebraic curve may be an elliptic curve. The curve may be anelliptic curve having a BN curve parameter such that (p⁴−p²+1)/q is aprime, where p is the prime modulus and q is the order of the groups

₁,

₂ and

_(T) of the mapping

₁×

₂→

_(T) on the curve.

According to another aspect of the invention, there is also provided acomputer program for an authenticating apparatus for authenticating aclient device by determining that the client device must be in apossession of a secret without the authenticating apparatus receivingthe secret itself, the computer program comprising instructions thatwhen executed by a at least one processor cause the at least oneprocessor to carry out the method in the second entity described above.

According to another aspect of the invention, there may be provided anon-transitory computer readable medium having the computer programrecorded and stored thereon.

According to another aspect of the invention, there is also provided amethod of authenticating a client to a server comprising a clientcarrying out the method described to be carried out in the first entityabove and a server carrying out the method described to be carried outin the second entity above.

According to another aspect of the invention, there is also provided anapparatus for authenticating itself to another entity by providing tothe other entity that it is in possession of a secret without revealingthe secret to the other entity, the apparatus comprising: at least onememory having instructions stored thereon; and one or more processorsprogrammed to execute the instructions to perform the followingoperations: receiving in the apparatus an input from a user, the secretbeing divided into at least a first factor and a second factor and theinput relating to the second factor of the secret; reconstructing in theapparatus a secret from at least the first factor and the second factor;and carrying out a calculation in the apparatus using the reconstructedsecret and sending the results of the calculation to the other entity,wherein the results provides an input to a pairing calculation.

The full secret may correspond to a point on an elliptic curve and thenon-transitory computer readable medium may further may haveinstructions that when executed by the one or more processors performthe following: generating a random value x in the apparatus, where x islower than q; calculating A=H₁(ID_(α)) in the apparatus, where ID_(α) isthe identity associated with the apparatus and H₁ is a hash functionthat hashes the identity to a point on an elliptic curve; calculatinganother point U=xA on the elliptic curve in the apparatus andtransmitting ID_(α) and U to the other entity; and receiving a randomvalue y generated in the other entity, where y is lower than q. Theinstructions for carrying out said calculation in the apparatus usingthe reconstructed key and sending the results to the other entity maycomprise instructions for calculating a new point V=−(x+y)((s−α)A+αA)and sending V to the other entity, wherein the first factor is thecoordinates of a point (s−α)A, the input comprises a value α, the secretsA is issued by a trusted authority and obtained by the trustedauthority by multiplying the point corresponding to the identityassociated the apparatus with a master secret s and the pairingcalculation comprises a mapping

₁×

₂→

_(T)

where

₁ and

₂ are distinct and q is the order of the groups

₁,

₂ and

_(T).

The calculation using the reconstructed secret may also use a timepermit received in the apparatus to obtain the results to send to theother entity, the time permit may be issued by the trusted authority andthe time permit may be derived from a time period during which theapparatus is entitled to complete the protocol.

The at least one memory may further comprise instructions for derivingan encryption key from a data value in a message received from the otherentity, in response to sending the other entity the result of thecalculation, the data value in the response being obtained from theresults of a pairing of said pairing calculation.

According to another aspect of the invention, there is also providedapparatus for authenticating itself to another entity by proving to theother entity that it is in possession of a secret without revealing thesecret to the other entity, the apparatus comprising: means forreceiving in the apparatus an input from a user, the secret beingdivided into at least a first factor and a second factor and the inputrelating to the second factor of the secret; means for reconstructing inthe apparatus a secret from at least the first factor and the secondfactor; and means for carrying out a calculation in the apparatus usingthe reconstructed secret and sending the results of the calculation tothe other entity, wherein the results provide an input to a pairing inthe other entity.

The apparatus for authenticating itself to another entity may be aclient device. The at least one memory may comprise a memory that formspart of the client's browser memory.

According to another aspect of the invention, there is also providedapparatus for authenticating another entity by determining that theentity must be in a possession of a secret without receiving the secretitself, the apparatus comprising: at least one memory havinginstructions stored thereon; and at least one processor programmed toexecute the instructions to: receive in the apparatus a result of acalculation carried out in the other entity, the calculation using thesecret reconstructed from at least a first factor of the secret and asecond factor of the secret; and carry out a calculation in theapparatus to determine that the other entity is in possession of thesecret, wherein the calculation comprises a first pairing that takes aninput based on the result from the other entity and a second pairingbased on a secret associated with the apparatus.

The apparatus may be a computing system. The computing system may be anauthenticating server.

The secret associated with the other entity may correspond to a point onan algebraic curve and the non-transitory computer readable media mayfurther comprise instructions for receiving, from the other entity, theidentity of the other entity and the coordinates of a point U on thealgebraic curve; generating a random value y, lower than q, and sendingto the other entity; calculating A=H₁(ID_(α)), where ID_(α) is theidentity associated with the first entity and H₁ is a hash function thathashes the identity to a point on the algebraic curve. Receiving aresult of the calculation may comprise receiving the coordinates of apoint V from the first entity, where V=−(x+y)((s−α)A+αA), x anotherrandom value lower than q and the secret of the other entity is issuedby a trusted authority and corresponds to a point sA wherein s is amaster secret, the factor comprises the coordinates of a point (s−α)A onthe algebraic curve and the second factor comprises a value α. Moreover,carrying out said pairing calculation may comprises calculating aproduct of pairings comprising a first pairing e(V, Q) and a secondpairing e(U+yA, sQ) to obtain g=e(V, Q). e(U+yA, sQ) where Q is a fixedpoint on the elliptic curve and sQ is another point on the ellipticcurve corresponding to a secret of the apparatus and the first andsecond pairing is a mapping

₁×

₂→

_(T) where

₁ and

₂ are distinct groups and q is the order of the groups

₁,

₂ and

_(T). The instructions may also comprise instructions for refusing theconnection if g≠1.

The instructions may further comprise instructions for obtaining a timeperiod during which the other entity is entitled to complete theprotocol and using the time period and the identity of the other entityto derive an input to the second pairing.

The at least one memory may further comprise instructions fortransmitting a value derived from the results of a pairing of thepairing calculation, taking an input based on the result received fromthe other entity, to the other entity to allow the other entity toderive an encryption key and deriving a key in the apparatus fromanother pairing, taking an input corresponding to the secret of theapparatus.

The apparatus may comprises two components, each comprising a separatememory of the at least one memory, each having a separate processor, ofthe at least one processor, for executing the instructions stored on itsrespective memory, and each storing a part of the secret associated withthe apparatus, wherein the instructions for carrying out the secondpairing comprises instructions for carrying out a pairing in eachcomponent, taking as an input its respective part of the secret, andthen carrying out a product of the two pairings. The two partscorrespond to two different points on the curve that when added togetherform the full secret.

The instructions may further comprise, in response to determining thatthe other entity is not in possession of the secret associated with theother entity, determining the extent of any error in the second factor.

The instructions may further comprise, in response to determining thatthe other entity is not in possession of the secret associated with theother entity, inviting the other entity to attempt to authenticateagain, and increasing the value of an error count by a variable amountfor each authentication attempt, the amount varying depending on theextent of error in each authentication attempt.

The instructions may further comprise rejecting the connection to theother entity if the value of the error count exceeds a predeterminedmaximum error value.

The algebraic curve may be an elliptic curve having a BN curve parametersuch that (p⁴−p²+1)/q is a prime, where p is the prime modulus and q isthe order of the groups

₁,

₂ and

_(T) of the mapping

₁×

₂→

_(T) on the curve.

According to another aspect of the invention, there is also provided anapparatus for authenticating another entity by determining that theother entity must be in a possession of a secret without the apparatusreceiving the secret itself, the apparatus comprising: means forreceiving in the apparatus a result of a calculation carried out in theother entity, the calculation using a secret reconstructed in the otherentity from at least a first factor of the secret and a second factor ofthe secret; and carrying out a calculation in the apparatus to determinethat the other entity is in possession of the secret, wherein thecalculation comprises a pairing calculation that takes an input based onthe result from the other entity.

The apparatus for authenticating the other entity may be a server.

According to another aspect of the invention, there is also provided asystem comprising a client device as described above and a server asdescribed above. The system may also include an independent entityproviding a trusted authority. The trusted authority may issue a secretto the client and another secret to the server.

According to another aspect of the invention, there is also provided acomputer-implemented method of carrying out multi-factor zero-knowledgeproof authentication of a first entity to a second entity.

The method may use pairing-based cryptography to carry out theauthentication.

The authentication may be followed by authenticated key agreement toallow subsequent secure exchange of data.

The first entity may be associated with a secret issued by a separateentity, corresponding to a point on an elliptic curve and divided intoat least a first factor and at least a second factor in the first entityand wherein the method may further comprise the first entityreconstructing the full secret from at least the first factor, stored inthe first entity, and at least the second factor received from a user,using the reconstructed full secret to carry out a calculation andsending a result of the calculation to the second entity. The secondentity may use the results of the calculation to authenticate the firstentity. The calculation in the first entity may be a non-pairingcalculation and the calculation in the second entity may be a pairingcalculation.

The second entity may store its own secret, also issued by the separateentity, the second entity secret also corresponding to a point on theelliptic curve and wherein the method may further comprise: carrying outproduct of pairings in the second entity comprising a first pairing thattakes as one of its input the result received from the first entity anda second pairing that takes as one of its inputs the point on the curvecorresponding to the second entity secret, and determining whether toauthenticate the first entity based on the results of the product ofpairings.

The product of pairings may be carried out as a multi-pairing.Alternatively, the second entity may first carry out the first and thesecond pairing and then multiply the results of the two pairingstogether.

According to yet another aspect of the invention, there is also provideda computer implemented method of carrying out authenticated keyagreement comprising authenticating a client using the authenticationmethod defined above and further comprising deriving a sessionencryption key from the results of a pairing calculated during theauthentication process.

The method may further comprise the second entity transmitting a valuederived from the results of the pairing to the first entity and thefirst entity deriving the key from the received value.

According to yet another aspect of the invention, there is provided acomputer-implemented method of carrying out pairing based key agreementusing a Barreto-Naehrig (BN) elliptic curve wherein the BN curveparameter is selected such that (p⁴−p²+1)/q is a prime, where p is theprime modulus and q is the order of the groups

₁,

₂ and

_(T) of the mapping

₁×

₂→

_(T) on the elliptic curve.

Furthermore, according to yet another aspect of the invention, there isprovided a computer program comprising instructions that when executedby at least one processor cause the one or more processors to carry outsteps of a key agreement protocol in an entity to derive a key forsecurely communicating with another entity, the key agreement protocolusing a Barreto-Naehrig (BN) elliptic curve wherein the BN curveparameter is selected such that (p⁴−p²+1)/q is a prime, where p is theprime modulus and q is the order of the groups

₁,

₂ and

_(T) of the mapping

₁×

₂→

_(T) on the elliptic curve.

According to yet another aspect of the invention, there is also provideda non-transitory computer readable medium having a computer program, asdefined above, stored thereon.

According to yet another aspect of the invention, there is also providedan apparatus comprising a non-transitory computer readable medium asdefined above and at least one processor for executing the instructionson the non-transitory computer readable medium.

According to another aspect of the invention, there is provided acomputer implemented method comprising: receiving in an apparatus datafrom a client, the data being provided as part of an authenticationattempt to authenticate the client to the apparatus; determining in theapparatus that there is an error associated with the received data,determining an error value based on the extent of the error; and inresponse to determining that a value of a combined error value for anumber of authentication attempts of the client does not exceed apredetermined maximum error value, inviting the client to attempt toauthenticate again.

According to another aspect of the invention, there is also provided acomputer implemented method comprising: receiving in an apparatus datafrom a client, the data being provided as part of an authenticationattempt to authenticate the client to the apparatus, the client beingassociated with an actual secret that has been split into multiplefactors and the data having been derived from multiple factors used inthe client to attempt to reconstruct the actual secret; determining thatone of the factors of the multiple factors used to derive the data isdifferent to a corresponding factor of the multiple factors of theactual secret and determining the extent of said difference; determiningan error value associated with the difference; and in response todetermining that a value of a combined error value for a number ofauthentication attempts of the client does not exceed a predeterminedmaximum error value, inviting the client to attempt to authenticateagain.

The multiple factors of the actual secret may be unknown to theapparatus. The factor may be a PIN and the error value may depend on howmany digits of the PIN are wrong.

According to yet another aspect of the invention, there is also provideda computer program comprising instructions that when executed by atleast one processor of an apparatus cause the at least one processor to:receive data received in the apparatus from a client, the data beingprovided as part of an authentication attempt to authenticate the clientto the apparatus, the client being associated with an actual secret thathas been split into multiple factors and the data having been derivedfrom multiple factors used in the client to attempt to reconstruct theactual secret; determine that one of the factors of the multiple factorsused to derive the data is different to a corresponding factor of themultiple factors of the actual secret; determine an error valueassociated with the difference between said one of the factors of themultiple factors and the corresponding factor; and in response todetermining that a combined error value for a number of authenticationattempts of the client does not exceed a predetermined maximum errorvalue, inviting the client to attempt to authenticate again.

According to another aspect of the invention, there is also provided anapparatus comprises: at least one memory having instructions storedthereon; and at least one processor programmed to execute theinstructions to perform the following operations: receiving data from aclient as part of an authentication attempt to authenticate the clientto the apparatus, the client being associated with a secret that hasbeen split into multiple factors and the received data having beenderived from multiple factors used in the client to attempt toreconstruct the actual secret; determining that one of the factors ofthe multiple factors used to derive the data is different to acorresponding factor of the multiple factors of the actual secret anddetermining the extent of the difference; determining an error valueassociated with the difference; and in response to determining that acombined error value for a number of authentication attempts of theclient does not exceed a predetermined maximum error value, inviting theclient to attempt to authenticate again.

According to another aspect of the invention, there is also provided acomputer-implemented method of issuing a client and a server withsecrets for carrying out encryption or authentication, wherein theclient is issued with secret sA and the server is issued with secret sQwhere A is a point, on an algebraic curve, associated with the client, Qis a fixed point on the algebraic curve, s is a master secret and sA andsQ represent points obtained by multiplication, on the algebraic curve,of the points A and point Q respectively, by the master secret s.

The method may be carried out by a trusted authority that controls asystem comprising the client and the server. The fixed point Q may bethe same point for all servers in a system controlled by the trustedauthority. The master secret s may be associated with a particularserver and may be different for different servers. The point A may beobtained by hashing data corresponding to an identity of the client.

The method may be a computer-implemented method.

According to another aspect of the invention, there is also provided anon-transitory computer readable medium comprising instructions thatwhen executed by one or more processors cause the one or more processorsto carry out the above defined method.

According to another aspect of the invention, there is also provided atrusted authority comprising said non-transitory computer readablemedium and one or more processors for executing the instructions on themedium.

According to yet another aspect of the invention, there is provided acomputer-implemented method in a first entity for communicatinginformation to a second entity, without sending the actual informationto the second entity, the information being associated with a secretdivided into at least a first factor and a second factor, the methodcomprising: combining at least the first factor and a dummy secondfactor into a dummy secret, the dummy second factor being different tothe second factor by a value corresponding to the information to becommunicated to the second entity; and carrying out a calculation in thefirst entity using the reconstructed dummy secret and sending theresults of the calculation to the second entity, wherein the results areused in a calculation in the second entity to determine the differencebetween the dummy second factor and the second factor.

The calculation may comprise a cryptographic pairing on an ellipticcurve and the secret may be a point on the curve.

The information may form a part of a message, each part of the messagebeing associated with a secret split into at least two factors andwherein the method further comprises combining at least a first factorand a dummy factor into a dummy secret for each part of the message andsending the results of calculations based on the dummy secrets to thesecond entity for the second entity to assemble the message.

The message may comprise credit card information.

According to another aspect of the invention, there is also provided acomputer program comprising instructions that when executed by at leastone processor cause the at least one processor to carry out the methodof communicating information defined above. The computer program may bestored on a computer readable medium.

According to another aspect of the invention, there is also provided acomputer-implemented method in for obtaining information from a firstentity in a second entity, the information being associated with asecret divided into at least a first factor and a second factor, themethod comprising: receiving in the second entity a result of acalculation carried out in the first entity, the calculation using adummy secret, created, in the first entity, from at least a first factorof the secret and a dummy second factor, the dummy second factor beingdifferent to the second factor by a value corresponding to theinformation to be obtained in the second entity; and carrying out acalculation in the second entity to determine the difference between thedummy second factor and the second factor, wherein the calculation usesthe result from the first entity.

The calculation may comprise a pairing based on the result from thefirst entity.

The method may further comprise receiving the result of multiplecalculations from the first entity, each calculation having been basedon dummy secret associated with a different part of a message and eachdummy secret being derived from a dummy factor different to an actualfactor and assembling the message in the second entity.

The calculation to determine the difference may comprise carrying out acalculation to obtain a value g and determining the value of δ from thevalue obtained for g and using the relationship g=e(U+yA, Q)^(δ), whereU, yA and Q are points on an elliptic curve.

The calculation to determine the difference may comprise carrying out acalculation to obtain a value g and determining the value of δ from thevalue obtained for g and using the relationship g=e(R+yA, Q)^(δ) whereR, yA and Q are points on an elliptic curve.

The message may comprise information for carrying out a financialtransaction. The message may comprise a credit card number or a debitcard number.

According to another aspect of the invention, there is also provided acomputer program comprising instructions that when executed by one ormore processor cause the processor to carry out the method of obtaininginformation defined above. The computer program may be stored on acomputer readable medium.

According to another aspect of the invention, there is also provided acomputer implemented method for generating a secret for each part of themessage and extracting a factor, corresponding to a part of the message,from each factor to create a plurality of multi-factor secrets.

Additionally, according to another aspect of the invention there isprovided a non-transitory computer readable medium having instructionsstored thereon that when executed by a processor cause the processor tocarry out the above defined method.

According to another aspect of the invention, there may also be provideda trusted authority that comprises said computer readable medium and oneor more processors for carrying out the instructions.

According to another aspect of the invention, there is also provided acomputer implemented method of authenticating a first entity to a secondentity, wherein the first entity is associated with a secret split intomultiple factors and the method comprises carrying out a calculation,using bilinear mappings, based on data derived from the secretreconstructed from the multiple factors and determining whether thefirst entity must have been in possession of the secret based on thecalculation.

The method may further comprise reconstructing the secret in the firstentity from the multiple factors of the secret; and using thereconstructed secret to derive an input to a bilinear mapping, whereincarrying out the calculation comprises computing a first bilinearmapping taking said input as a first input and a second input based ondata associated with the second entity and computing a second bilinearmapping taking a first input based on data associated with the firstentity and a second input data derived from a secret associated with thesecond entity, the first entity secret having been constructed from saiddata associated with the first entity and the second entity secrethaving been constructed from the data associated with the second entitysuch that, using bilinearity, the results of the mappings, or valuesderived from the results of the mappings, can be used to determine bythe second entity whether the first entity is in possession of itssecret.

The method may comprise calculating the first bilinear mapping either inthe first entity or the second entity.

The calculation may comprise carrying out a multi-pairing realising twopairings corresponding to the first and second bilinear mapping anddetermining whether the first entity must have been in possession of thesecret may comprise determining whether the result of the multi-pairingis equal to a predetermined value.

Alternatively, the calculation may comprise hashing the results of thebilinear mappings and determining whether the first entity must havebeen in possession of the secret may comprise comparing the results or ahash of the results.

According to yet another aspect of the invention, there is also providedan apparatus comprising at least one memory having instructions storedthereon; and at least one processor programmed to execute theinstructions to authenticate a client, the client being associated witha secret having been divided into multiple factors and the instructions,when executed, cause the at least one processor to carry out acalculation, using bilinear mappings, based on data derived from thesecret reconstructed from the multiple factors and determine whether thefirst entity must have been in possession of the secret based on thecalculation.

According to yet another aspect of the invention, there is also provideda non-transitory computer readable medium having instructions storedthereon that when executed by at least one processor of an apparatuscause the at least one processor of the apparatus to carry out anauthentication process for authenticating a client, the client beingassociated with a secret having been divided into multiple factors andthe instructions, when executed, cause the one or more processors tocarry out a calculation, using bilinear mappings, based on data derivedfrom the secret reconstructed from the multiple factors and to determinewhether the first entity must have been in possession of the secretbased on the calculation.

BRIEF DESCRIPTION OF THE DRAWINGS

Embodiments of the invention will now be described, by way of example,with reference to the accompanying drawings, in which:

FIG. 1 is a schematic block diagram illustrating an example of a systemcomprising a client, an authentication server and a trusted authority;

FIG. 2 is a schematic block diagram of a client in the system of FIG. 1;

FIG. 3 is a schematic block diagram of an authentication server in thesystem of FIG. 2;

FIG. 4 is a schematic block diagram of a trusted authority in the systemof FIG. 1;

FIG. 5 is a schematic block diagram of an example of an alternativesystem;

FIGS. 6 and 7 are flow diagrams illustrating a protocol forauthentication a client to the server;

FIG. 8 is a flow diagram illustrating a process in the authenticationserver for handling PIN errors;

FIGS. 9 and 10 are flow diagrams illustrating an extension of theprotocol of FIGS. 6 and 7 in order to also establish a session key;

FIGS. 11 and 12 are flow diagrams illustrating a protocol forauthentication a client to the server which also includes time permits;

FIG. 13 is a schematic diagram of a system that uses time permits tosend additional information to a party of the system;

FIGS. 14, 15 and 16 are flow diagrams illustrating set-up processes inthe entities of the system; and

FIGS. 17, 18 and 19 are flow diagrams illustrating an example of howinformation can be sent in a covert channel provided by the system

DETAILED DESCRIPTION

With reference to FIG. 1, a system 1 is shown comprising a client 2, anauthentication server 3 and a trusted authority (TA) 4. The client, theauthentication server and the TA may communicate over a communicationmedium such as a data network 5. The client 2 is operated by a user 6.

The client 2 wishes to authenticate itself to the server 3 to, forexample, access data or another resource, carry out a transaction ortransmit data to the server. The client may wish to gain access toanother server (not shown in FIG. 1). The client and server may alsowant to exchange data in a secure manner, following the authentication,and they may therefore want to establish an encryption key forexchanging the data. The key may be used by the client to encrypt themessage and by the server to decrypt the message or vice versa.

The TA 4 issues a secret 7 to the client and another secret 8 to theserver. The secrets are derived from a master secret 9 stored by the TA4. Some implementations allow the client 2 to prove to the server 3 thatthe client is in possession of its secret 7 without revealing the secretitself, or anything about the secret, to the server. Some examples ofprotocols described herein also require the server 3 to be in possessionof a server secret 8 in order to determine that the client does in facthave its own secret 7. The decision to issue a secret 7 to the client 2may be carried out upon a request from the server 3 to the trustedauthority 4 to issue a secret to a client that attempts to connect tothe server. The server may have previously enrolled in the system andreceived its own secret 8 from the trusted authority 4. Once the secrethas been issued to the client, the client can then authenticate itselfto the server and the server and the client can establish acommunication link. The server 3 may provide an identity of the client 2to the TA to allow the TA to derive the client secret 7 and send it tothe client over a secure connection. In other examples, the client mayitself send its identity to the TA and request the TA to issue it with aclient secret to be used by the client to authenticate to the server 3.The identity of the client may include any data string that identifiesthe user and/or the client. The identity may include, but is not limitedto, a name, an email address, a social security number, a title or alicence number.

The client processes the received secret 7 into a plurality of factors10 and 11. In FIG. 1, the secret is shown to be split into a firstfactor 10 and a second factor 11. However, the secret can be split intoany number of factors. During set-up, the client receives one of thefactors 11 from the user 6, extracts that factor from the client secret7 and stores what remains, the first factor 10, in the client. If theclient secret is split into more than two factors, the client mayextract more than one factor from the secret. For example, the clientmay receive two or more factors from a user or from more than one userand may extract all the factors from the secret.

In the system of FIG. 1, the first factor 10 of the secret is a token.The token may be a software token. The software token may be a string ofdata. It may be stored, for example, as a “cookie'. The second factor 11can be any string of data. It may, for example, be a personalidentification number (PIN), a password or a soft biometric.Hereinafter, we will refer to the second factor 11 as a PIN but it willbe realised that it could also be another type of data. The client mayonly store the token 10. The PIN 11 may be memorised by the user.

When the user 6 later wants to authenticate to the server 3 to, forexample, access data in the server or another entity or send data to theserver, it enters a PIN guess 11′ which the client 2 can use togetherwith the stored token to recover a secret. If the PIN guess 11′ matchesthe actual PIN 11, the client will recover the actual secret 7. If thesecret is split into more than two factors, the client may receive morethan one factor that it uses with the stored token to recover thesecret.

The client and the server proceed to exchange a plurality of messages12. The messages may comprise a commitment 12 a, a challenge 12 b and aresponse 12 c. Each of the commitment, the challenge and the responsemay comprise more than one message. The messages 12 may also includeadditional messages. Based on the message, the server can thenauthenticate the client, as will be described in more detail below.Having authenticated the client to the server, the client and the servermay proceed to exchange a plurality of other messages 13, as will alsobe described in more detail. The client and the server may proceed toestablish a key 14 to encrypt some of the data in the messages. The keymay be derived from the information exchanged in the authenticationmessages 12, the respective secrets of the client 2 and the server 3 andother parameters created in the process and only known to the respectiveparties, as will also be described in more detail below. Since theserver's secret is also required to calculate the key, an imposterserver cannot pretend that it is the real server and complete theprotocol to authenticate the client and establish the session key.Alternatively, the keys may be established, for example, using SSL, inthe other messages 13.

Although FIG. 1 only shows one client and one authentication server, itwill be realised that the system can support a plurality ofauthentication servers and clients and each authentication server canestablish secure communication links with a plurality of clients.

Each of the client, the server and the trusted authority will now bedescribed in more detail with respect to FIGS. 2, 3 and 4.

The client, the server and the TA may be implemented as software or acombination of software and hardware. In the description below, theclient, the server and the TA will be described to also comprise thecomputing devices on which the software runs. However, in someimplementations, the client, the server and the TA will be provided ascomputer programs with instructions that when run by one or moreprocessors provide the functionality of the client, the server and theTA respectively. The cryptographic functions may, for example, beprovided by plug-in software modules.

With reference to FIG. 2, the client 2 comprises a computer, a server orother computing device. It may for example be a personal computer,laptop or a mobile telephone or other personal portable device or mobiledevice. The computing device comprises a processor 21, a memory 22 forstoring computer program instructions and storage 23 for storing data.The memory 22 may store an initialisation program 24 for allowing theclient to create a PIN 11 and store the token 10 and an authenticationprogram 25 for allowing the client to authenticate itself to the serverusing the PIN 11 and the token 10. The client may have received, over asecure communication link, the initialisation program 24 from the TA 4and the authentication program 25 from the authentication server 3.Alternatively, the client receives both programs from the TA, theauthentication server or another entity. In some implementations, theinitialisation program and the authentication program form part of thesame computer program. The initialisation program may store instructionsfor enrolling in the system. The instructions may include instructionsfor providing a graphical user interface for the user 6 to enter a PIN,instructions for receiving the PIN from an input device, used by theuser to enter the PIN, and instructions for extracting the PIN from thesecret 7 to create the multiple factors of the secret. The input devicemay for example be a keypad or a keyboard, which forms part of or isconnectable to, the client. The authentication program 25 may compriseinstructions for reconstructing the client secret from multiple factors,e.g. the PIN and the token, and engage in the authentication protocolwith the server. The instructions may also enable the client to engagein an authenticated key agreement process with the authenticationserver. In some examples, the initialisation program 24 may be servedthrough a web interface to the client 2 by the trusted authority 4.Similarly, in some examples, the authentication program 25 may be servedthrough a web interface to the client 2 from the authentication server3. The client may receive the programs through the web interface andstore them in the memory 22. In some implementations, when the programsare served through a web interface, the programs, or a part of theprograms, may not be stored in the memory 22.

The memory may also store additional instructions for communication withthe server and other devices. For example the instructions may provide abrowser. The browser may be a web browser for the user to access theWorld Wide Web but it can also be a browser for accessing resources in aprivate network. The initialisation program 24 and the authenticationprogram 25 may form part of or be served through, the browser. Theclient may for example download and store the programs in the client'sbrowser memory. In some examples, the client 2 may be provided by thebrowser.

The processor 21 is configured to execute the instructions. Theprocessor will have its own internal temporary memory, for example acache memory, in order to store and quickly access some data duringexecution of the instructions in the memory 22.

The storage 23 may store the token 10. The storage may be provided bythe storage of a browser. Alternatively, the storage may comprise aseparate universal serial bus (USB) flash drive for storing the token.The storage may also store the client's identity 26. For example, theclient's identity may be stored as metadata with the token 10. In otherexamples, the identity is not stored in the storage of the client butentered by the user each time it is needed. In some examples, where timepermits are used, the storage may also store a time permit 27. Timepermits will be described in more detail below. The storage need not beprotected. Without the PIN 11, which is not stored, the client secretcannot be recovered. Consequently, even if an external entity gets holdof the token and the client identity, it will not be able to recover thefull secret 7.

The initialisation program 24 and the authentication program 25 may beprovided by a JavaScript program. The JavaScript program may compriseone or more separate program modules and the initialisation program andthe authentication program may be provided by separate modules. TheJavaScript program may also be used to receive the PIN from the user.The JavaScript program may store the token in the browser's storage oralternative unprotected storage. The client may be provided by thisJavaScript program. The program may be configured to run on a generalpurpose user device. The JavaScript program may be served through a webinterface from the authentication server 3 and/or the TA 4 to thedevice. In some implementations, the program could for example bereceived or downloaded from the authentication server 3 and/or the TA 4and installed on the general purpose user device.

As mentioned with respect to FIG. 1, the client may be operated by auser 6. The user 6 would typically be a human being. However, the user 6may instead be a machine, such as a computer. When the user is amachine, the PIN may be machine generated. When authentication to theserver 3 is required, the machine then provides the PIN to the client 2in order to allow the client to reconstruct the secret 7.

With reference to FIG. 3, the authentication server 3 comprises acomputer, a server or other computing device. The computing devicecomprises a processor 31, a memory 32 for storing computer programinstructions and storage 33 for storing data. The memory 32 comprises aserver authentication program 34 with instructions in the form ofcomputer code for running the server side of the enrolment andauthentication processes. The authentication program comprisesinstructions for enrolling with the TA to obtain its own secret. Theprogram also comprises instructions for authenticating the client. Insome implementations, the program may comprise computer instructions forderiving the session key. The program may further comprise instructionsfor sending the client the client authentication program 25 comprisinginstructions for the client to carry out its side of the authenticationprotocol. On receipt, a general purpose user device can use the programto participate in the system and authenticate itself to the server usingthe secret received from the TA. The client may store and execute theprogram and the program may configure the client to carry out theauthenticate process with respect to the server using the secretreceived from the TA. Moreover, the authentication program 34 maycomprise instructions for carrying out an error handling process if theclient receives an incorrect PIN from the user and therefore fails anattempt to authenticate to the server. The authentication program 34 maycomprise a module for registering with the TA 4 and a separate modulefor communicating with the client 2. When the authentication program 34also includes instructions for carrying out the error handlingprocessor, the authentication program may comprise a separate errorhandling module. The server 3 may have obtained the authenticationprogram 34 from the TA 4.

The processor 31 is configured to execute the instructions in thememory. The processor may also comprise its own internal temporarymemory, such as cache memory, for temporary storing data duringexecution of the instructions in the memory 32.

The storage 33 may comprise of secure storage for storing the serversecret 8. The storage may also comprise a client authentication programa copy of which it sends to each new client that wants to authenticateto a server.

As mentioned above, in some implementations, the authentication serveris implemented as software only and comprises only the programinstructions to be executed by the processor. In other implementations,the server may be a dedicated hardware device.

With reference to FIG. 4, the TA 4 may comprise a computer, a server orother computing device. The TA is a separate entity to the client andthe server and acts as a controller of the system. The computing devicecomprises a processor 41, a memory 42 for storing computer programinstructions and a storage 43 for storing data. The memory may store aninitialisation program 44 that generates the master secret 9 and enrolsparticipants in the system. It may also allocate identifiers to theentities of the system. The program may also comprise instructions forsending the initialisation program 24 to the client to allow the clientto generate the token and the PIN. For example, as mentioned above theTA may provide the initialisation program 24 through a web interface tothe client. The initialisation program may also include instructions forissuing time permits as will be described in more detail below.

The processor 41 is configured to execute the instructions in memory.The processor also comprises its own internal temporary memory, such ascache memory, for temporary storing data during execution of theinstructions in memory 42.

The storage 43 may comprise secure storage that stores the master secret9. The secure storage may be tamper proof or tamper resistant. Thesecure storage may also comprise a list 45 of the clients and serversenrolled in the system. The list of clients and servers 45 may alsostore time permits for the clients, as will be described in more detailbelow. Additionally, the storage of the trusted authority may storeparameters 46 to be used in the protocols, including parameters definingan algebraic curve and hash functions to be used in the protocol, aswill be described in more detail below. The TA may send this informationto the clients and the servers or publish it for the clients and theservers to obtain when needed. The information may be included in theinitialisation program provided to the client 2.

As mentioned above, in some examples the TA only comprises the programinstructions to be executed by the processor. In other examples, the TAmay be a dedicated hardware device.

As described with respect to FIG. 1, the client, the server and the TAmay be connected by a communication medium 5, such as a data network.For example, the entities may be connected by the Internet. However, theclient, the server and the TA may additionally or alternativelycommunicate using other communication media. It will be realised thatthe processors, memories and storage of the client, the server and theTA may each comprise one or more processors, memories and storagemodules.

The system may use bilinear mappings to allow the client 2 toauthenticate itself to the authentication server 3. The system may usethe bilinear mappings to allow the client to authenticate itself to theserver without sending its secret information to the authenticationserver. This is known as zero knowledge proof authentication. A zeroknowledge proof cryptography scheme is a scheme in which one party (theprover) proves to the other party (the verifier) that is has a secretvalue, without revealing anything about the secret. Consequently, nomatter how many times the client authenticates to the server, the serverwill not be able to determine the secret.

The bilinear mappings may comprise pairings. Pairings work on a specialpairing-friendly elliptic curve. An asymmetric pairing map may be used.The bilinearity characteristic of pairings may be used to realise theexamples of zero knowledge proof cryptography schemes described herein.

Pairings on elliptic curves are known by the skilled person and will notbe described in detail herein. Briefly, an asymmetric pairing takes asinput two points on the curve, belonging to distinct first and secondgroups, and maps the points to an element in a third group. Because ofthe bilinear property of pairings, a client secret sA and dataassociated with the server can be mapped to the same element in thethird group as data associated with the client and a server secret sQ,when the client secret and the server secret are constructed from thedata associated with the client and the data associated with the server,respectively, in a specific way.

e(sA, Q)=e(A, sQ)=e(A, Q)^(s)

The client secret 7 may be constructed in the TA by hashing public dataassociated with the client, in the form of the client identity 26, to apoint A on the curve belonging to first group and then multiplying, onthe curve, the point with a master secret s. The server secret 8 isconstructed in the TA by multiplying, on the curve, a fixed point Q, inthe second group, with the master secret s. Consequently, by calculatinga pairing based on its own secret data in the server, and analysing theresult of the pairing based on the client secret or a value derived fromthat pairing, the server can determine whether the client was inpossession of the client secret 7 without receiving the client secret 7itself.

The skilled person will appreciate that there exists a large number ofsuitable elliptic curves that can be used to carry out the pairings.Moreover, although the pairings are described to be carried out onelliptic curves herein, it will be realised that other suitable curvesmay be used.

Elliptic curve algebra defines particular rules for carrying outadditions and multiplications of points on the curves. These are knownin the art and will not be described herein. Briefly, the rules definean operation called addition that involves adding two points A and Btogether to obtain another point C. Geometrically this may involve, forexample for points with different x coordinates, drawing a straight linebetween the points A and B and finding the point C where the straightline intersects the curve. However the rules will also define how thenew point can be obtained algebraically. The operation calledmultiplication is defined by repeated additions of the same point A anumber of k times to obtain kA. The operation called subtractioninvolves obtaining the negative of the point B to be subtracted fromanother point A and then carrying out an addition of the points A and−B. The negative of B is the point with the same x coordinate but withthe negative of the y coordinate, −B.

A number of different types of pairings can be used to realise thecryptographic protocols described herein, as will be appreciated by theskilled person. For example, the Weil pairing, the Tate pairing, the atepairing and the R-ate pairing are examples of suitable pairings that maybe used.

The protocols may further be constructed such that the client 2 is notrequired to calculate a pairing and the heavy processing is insteadcarried out in the authentication server 3. The client carries out acalculation, using its secret 7, and sends the results to the server.The server, using its own secret 8 and by computing a pairingcalculation, checks whether the client would have been able to obtainthe results received without being in possession of the client secret.If the server determines that the client would not have been able toobtain the results of the calculation without being in possession of thesecret, the server authenticates the client. The calculation carried outin the server may include a pairing using the results received from theclient and a pairing based on its own secret information and a productof the two pairings. The calculation may be carried out as amulti-pairing calculation. In some examples, if the product equals acertain value, the server can determine that the client is in fact inpossession of the key. In some examples, if the server determines thatthe client is not in possession of the secret it may be able todetermine the extent of the error in the PIN received by the client. Itsresponse to the client may depend on the extent of the error in the PIN.

Once the client has been authenticated, the client and the server maythen proceed to compute session keys. The client and the server mayproceed to establish the same symmetric session key based on theinformation already exchanged and additional information. Alternatively,the client and the server may establish session keys using the TransportLayer Security/Secure Socket Layer (TLS/SSL) protocol. In some examples,the keys used would be different each session and the client and theserver would need to establish a new session key each session, providingPerfect Forward Secrecy (PFS).

With reference to FIG. 5, an example of another system is shown. In FIG.1 and FIG. 5, like reference numerals designate like components. In FIG.5, the authentication server 3 is replaced by two servers 3 a and 3 band a proxy 3 c. As mentioned above, the processor 31, the memory 32 andthe storage 33 of the authentication server 3 of FIG. 3 may comprisemore than one processor, memory and storage respectively and theauthentication server 3 may be implemented as a distributed server witha number of server modules that each have their own processor, memoryand storage. In the system of FIG. 5, each of the two servers 3 a, 3 band the proxy 3 c may have their own processor, memory and storage. Eachof the servers 3 a and 3 b are issued with and stores a part 8 a, 8 b ofthe server secret 8. The proxy 3 c, which may itself be a separateserver, communicates with the client 2 and passes on the relevantinformation to each server 3 a, 3 b. Each server carries out its owncalculation and the proxy 3 c combines the results of the calculationsin order to authenticate the client 2. The calculations are carried outin such a way that neither the proxy nor the servers can obtain the fullserver secret 8. Consequently, an attack on the proxy or either serverwill not allow a hacker to obtain the server secret and pose as a serverto a client. The proxy 3 c may also establish the session key 14 fromresults received from the servers 3 a, 3 b. In some systems, a separateproxy may not exist but one of the servers will instead carry out thefunction of the proxy and communicate the relevant information to theother servers. This distributed server arrangement will be described inmore detail below.

In some systems, the TA may also be split into two components, each ofwhich stores a part of the master secret, to make it more difficult fora hacker to steal the master secret.

Some of the examples of protocols described below will be referred to as“M-pin”. Only “M-Pin” refers to a protocol for carrying outauthentication. “M-Pin Full” refers to an extended protocol for alsocarrying out key agreement.

We will describe various protocols and implementations in a stagedapproach below. We will describe various known protocols and schemes andsuggested modifications or variations to those protocols and schemes. Wewill then describe an M-Pin protocol and then a number of protocolswhich build on the M-Pin protocol. We will also describe alternativeprotocols. Moreover, we will describe examples of implementations andvariations of the protocols and examples of how the protocols can beused.

Review of Existing Proposals

In 2003 a scheme was proposed by Kim et al. [A13], which promised an“ID-based password Authentication Scheme using Smart Cards andFingerprints”. Scott [A20] showed how it could be comprehensively brokenby an attacker who passively eavesdropped a single transaction. Forclarity, details of references [A13] and [A20], together with details ofother references referred to herein are listed at the end of thedescription.

A much more recent 2012 paper by Martinez-Pelaez and Rico-Novella [A15]successfully cryptanalyses a scheme due to Sood, Sarje and Singh,described in their paper “An Improvement of Liao at al's AuthenticationScheme using Smart Cards” [A23]. This scheme is essentially a two-factorauthentication proposal. From the abstract of [A15] “ . . . we show thatSood at al.'s scheme is still vulnerable to malicious user attacks,man-in-the-middle attack, stolen smart-card attack, off-line ID guessingattack, impersonation attack and server spoofing attack . . . ”. Chasingdown through lists of cited papers on two-factor identification, onefinds a wasteland of similarly broken protocols. Many other schemes havefallen into the break-fix-break-fix cycle which generates a lot ofliterature, but rather less confidence. The cryptographic establishmentseems to have largely abandoned this area of research as a kind ofwild-west of cryptography, where no-one survives very long.

This problem was recognised by Hao and Clarke [A12] who explain it bystating that “The past thirty years of research in the area ofauthenticated key exchange has proved that it is incredibly difficult toget even a single factor based key exchange (KE) scheme right. Designinga multi-factor authenticated key exchange (AKE) protocol can only beharder.” However the reaction of the casual reader might be this: Howcome at this stage in the development of cryptographic protocols thereappears to be no satisfactory and widely accepted solution to theproblem of easy-to-use and secure two-factor authentication?

Password Authenticated Key Exchange (PAKE) is a well researched area,and many proven methods for PAKE have been proposed [A30]. However mostrequire the maintenance of a “password file”, or “password verifierfile”, which is exactly what an attacker looks for in a hacked server,and which allows them to completely unlock the server's security. Mostcommonly this file consists of tuples of <Username, Salt,H(Salt|Password)> where Salt is a random number, H(.) is a one way hashfunction and | indicates concatenation. As is well appreciated, unlessthe password is chosen to have high entropy, the attacker will succeedwith an off-line dictionary attack in finding the password by searchingthrough a dictionary at computer speeds. Only passwords that are outsideof the dictionary will survive this attack. This leads to the tautologythat a high entropy password must be agreed with the server in advance.Recall that the whole purpose of a PAKE is to mutually authenticate andagree a high entropy cryptographic key.

One alternative is to issue each client with a smart card, and to storepassword related information here rather than on the server. This hasthe added benefit of adding a second factor to the authenticationprocess—the smart card itself. However for this to work it seems thatthe smart card component must maintain full smart card functionality. Ifits security is broken then the system fails. See Yang et al. [A31] fora successful implementation of this approach. However smart cards areexpensive. Also such schemes invariably require the server to maintain along term secret s. And again if the server is hacked s might berevealed, unlocking the security of the entire system.

Multi-Factor Authentication

Multi-factor authentication commonly consists of (a) something we have,(b) something we know, and (c) something we are. The form in which it ismost familiar to us would be as the two-factor ATM bank card and a 4digit PIN number. Here most of our discussion will be in the context oftwo-factor authentication, but with some consideration for support forthe third factor.

The “something we have” factor can be a physical token storing staticdata, perhaps in the form factor of data recorded on a magnetic strip,or in a QR code, or the familiar USB stick. Or it can be a smart-card.Note that a smartcard will have extra functionality in that it can haveits own protected secrets and computing ability, and cannot be cloned.However a smart card is much more expensive, and losing it requiresexpensive replacement.

The “something we know” factor is a password. However passwords come intwo distinct flavours. The high-entropy password that is now morecommonly demanded of us, for example the password which must have eightor more characters and involve both upper and lower case letters, and atleast one numeral. Then there is the low entropy password, for examplethe 4-digit PIN. In the sequel we will use the word password exclusivelyfor high entropy passwords, and the word PIN for the low entropypassword. An alternative way to distinguish them is to observe that thelatter is easily found by an off-line dictionary attack, whereas theformer, hopefully, is not. An off-line dictionary attack is where anattacker can (at computer speeds) run through a dictionary of possiblepasswords/PINs and easily detect when they have found the right one.

The “something we are” factor is captured as a biometric, perhaps afingerprint or an iris scan. However they are commonly inexact, and acertain range of values for a biometric measurement might be regarded asacceptable.

Biometrics can be “hard” or “soft”. A soft biometric returns aclassification which can be used to limit the individual to membershipof a small group. A hard biometric works in conjunction with a storedtemplate to make an exact identification. This is analogous to thecomparison between a PIN and a password—clearly many people safely sharethe same PIN, but ideally every password should be unique. Hardbiometrics tend to be expensive, whereas soft biometric fingerprintscanners for example can be quite cheap. The template for a hardbiometric makes a valuable target for attack and must be securely storedsomewhere.

Many schemes propose a smart-card as a token. However they often alsoconsider the case where the security of the smart-card is breached andits secrets revealed, in which case it is no better than a passive token[A29], [A26]. We restrict ourselves, for some applications, to thesimplest, easiest and cheapest scenario (and hence the most practical).

We will assume

1. a static clonable token,

2. a low entropy 4-digit PIN number

3. (Optionally) a soft biometric.

However, it will be realised that the embodiments of the invention arenot limited to two or three factor authentication but can use secretssplit into multiple factors, including two factors, three factors andmore than three factors. Note that since our token may be static, we arein a position to provide a software only solution. For the client someof our proposed schemes are in fact closely analagous to the tried andtrusted ATM card (with static data recorded on a magnetic strip), andassociated PIN number. But one that works over the much more hostiledomain that is the Internet.

Security Features

Many authors have composed helpful lists of desirable features of suchprotocols. Tsai et al. [A25] provide a list of 9 security requirementsand 10 goals for such schemes. However their review of schemes availableat their time of writing reveals that all are disappointing. Liao et al.[A14] came up with a list of 10 properties, which Yang et al. [31]reduced to 5. Recently Wang [A29] came up with a list of 8 attacks thatsuch a scheme should resist, and identified 3 categories of potentialattacker.

Motivated by this prior art, here we give our own list of conditionsthat a scheme could meet.

-   -   1. The protocol should result in the client and the server being        mutually authenticated, and deriving a mutual cryptographic key.    -   2. No PIN related data is stored on the server. Nevertheless a        server should be able to assist a client in recovering their        forgotten PIN.    -   3. The underlying Authenticated Key Exchange is immune to “Key        Compromise Impersonation”. That is the server cannot impersonate        a client, and a client cannot impersonate the server.    -   4. The client should be able to change their PIN locally without        involving the server.    -   5. An attacker who gains possession of the authentication        server's secrets should only be able to (a) set up a false        server, and (b) given a client token determine their PIN. Note        that this is basically the best that can be hoped for, for any        such scheme.    -   6. The server should be able to identify the extent of any small        error □ in the client's secret. This will facilitate the        inclusion of an imprecise biometric measurement as a factor.    -   7. The scheme should support the property of “forward secrecy”.    -   8. The scheme should be truly “multi-factor”. If there are n        factors involved the loss of n−1 factors should not be        sufficient to permit the final factor to be found. Of course        this must also be true for insider attacks: For example a client        equipped with a valid token and PIN and who captures the token        of another client, should be unable to determine their PIN        number.    -   9. PIN guessing attacks can only be carried out on-line (and        therefore can be monitored and prevented by the server).    -   10. The overall system should not have a        single-point-of-failure.

It will now be described how a number of existing proposals and someadapted proposals fail to meet these properties. We will then describe ascheme that meets these properties and a number of protocols and systemsthat improve on this scheme or provide alternatives or modifications tothis scheme. Our literature review would suggest that no such schemeexisted before the scheme described herein. Not all protocols describedherein will meet these properties. The embodiments of the invention arenot limited to protocols that meet the 10 properties and some of theembodiments of the invention provide protocols, and modifications andvariations of protocols, which do not meet the 10 properties. Some ofthe examples of protocols described herein may be used with otherprotocols or schemes to meet the 10 properties.

Note that condition 3 is clearly impossible to meet for any scheme thatallows the server to manage client registration. When consideringsecurity, we can adopt in its entirety the adversarial model of [A31],which assumes an adversary who can completely control communicationsbetween the servers and its clients, and who may have possession of anynumber of tokens and associated PINs of users other than the individualunder attack.

Review of Further Existing Proposals

Next we look a little closer at the proposals to date. Most are based ina setting where there are just two parties involved, the clients and theserver. The former enter into some initial interaction with the server(a Registration phase) and are issued with some credentials. Invariablythis requires the server to have in their possession some master secretwhich will be involved in the authentication process. Such schemes wewould suggest are unlikely to improve on the current situation, as if(when) the server is hacked this secret may be discovered, and thesecurity of the whole scheme will unravel.

A close inspection of many of the simpler proposals reveals at theirheart the simple idea of using the one way hash of the clients identityconcatenated to a server master-secret, as the basis for clientauthentication and the establishment of an authenticated secret key. Sofor client identity ID and server master secret s, the protocol would bebuilt on the high entropy mutual secret H(ID|s), using as a hashfunction for example the standard Secure Hash Algorithm (SHA256). Thissecret would be stored by the client on their token (masked by apassword), and generated on the fly by the server as needed. Suchschemes often also include a Diffie-Hellman component to provide forwardsecrecy. Multiple combinations of these simple ideas have been proposed[A32], [A14], [A31], [A26] but most have not survived prolongedscrutiny. The ingenious idea of Yang et al. [A31] is to in effect useH(ID|s) as the password in a password authenticated key exchange (PAKE).But as already pointed out this requires smart-card functionality for atoken, and a long term server secret s and as they state “the secrecy ofs is of utmost important because the security of the entire systemessentially relies on the security of s”. But a hack of the server mayreveal s which would be even more lethal than stealing a password file.

A striking feature of most proposals is that often little effort is madeto provide a proof of security. Which certainly helps to explain why somany schemes are so quickly broken. However those proposals which doprovide some kind of proof of security tend to do poorly when measuredagainst our 10 desirable properties. And of course a proof of securityis only as good as its assumptions. For example in 2010 Stebila et al.[A24] proposed a multi-factor password-authenticated key exchange.However it does not meet our condition 2, and so a successful hack ofthe server reveals all static non-high-entropy passwords. The proposalby Yang et al. [A31] does not meet condition 3. A recent proposal byWang [A29] does not consider the possibility of an insider attack (ourcondition 8) and therefore not surprisingly falls to it. The scheme ofPointcheval and Zimmer [A16] does not satisfy our condition 2, andrecently Hao and Clarke [A12] have discovered problems with it based ondeficiencies of their formal model.

The lack of a satisfactory solution to date perhaps mirrors thesituation with respect to Identity-Based Encryption (IBE). Although thisconcept was well known since first proposed by Shamir in 1984 [A22],using standard public key infrastructure (PKI) constructs nosatisfactory scheme for IBE was ever found that didn't violate oneimportant condition or another. It was only in 2001 through the use ofthe then novel construct of the cryptographic pairing that practicalprotocols became possible [A4]. So perhaps it is unsurprising that ourproposed solution, in some implementations, exploits the properties ofcryptographic pairings.

The possibility of a better solution based on pairings is hinted at byYang et al. [A31] who identify the paper [A19] as describing “a protocolwhich can be extended to provide explicit mutual authentication andsatisfy all the properties given in [A14]”.

Our solution amounts, in some implementations, to the firstsoftware-only method for two factor authentication. Some implementationssatisfy all 10 of the desirable properties that we have identified aboveand in their simplest form require only a software token and an easilymemorised PIN number. However, as mentioned above, other implementationsand protocols described below may not meet all 10 properties.

Exploiting Standard Methods of PKI

For some applications, we would ideally like a method not dissimilar toPKI, where both the clients and the server are enrolled in the scheme bya largely off-line and well protected third party trusted authority. Byseparating out the roles of the enrollment or registration from the roleof the server the loss of server secrets, while clearly damaging, shouldhopefully not be as catastrophic.

Several proven methods have been reported for one-factor authenticatedkey exchange (AKE) using the methods of PKI. The basic idea is to issueusers with a digital signature of their identity which they can then usein the key exchange.

Consider the provably secure Identity-Based Diffie-Hellman scheme ofFiore and Gennaro [A6]. Here a trusted authority choses a random groupgenerator g, and a random master secret x and issues a public keyy=g^(x). Then it issues a Schnorr signature [A18] on a profferedidentity as (r_(ID), s_(ID)) by choosing a random k and calculatingr_(ID)=g^(k) and s_(ID)=k+xH(ID,r_(ID)). The key exchange proceeds as inTable 1.

TABLE 1 Identity-Based Diffie-Hellman - Fiore and Gennaro [A6] Alice -identity ID_(a) Bob - identity ID_(b) Generates random a < q Generatesrandom b < q u_(A) = g^(a) u_(B) = g^(b) ID_(a),r_(A),u_(A) → ←ID_(b),r_(B),u_(B) k = (u_(B)r_(B)y^(H(ID) ^(b) ^(,r) ^(B) ⁾)^(a+s) ^(A)k = (u_(A)r_(A)y^(H(ID) ^(a) ^(,r) ^(A) ⁾)^(b+s) ^(B)

Both participants end up with the same key k=g^(ab). Now let us try toadapt this scheme to the client-server setting and to include a PINnumber as a second factor. We immediately face two problems. First thisprotocol is intrinsically peer-to-peer rather than client-server.Therefore no matter how we go about embedding a PIN number such a schememust fall to an insider off-line dictionary attack. Basically anyone whohas possession of a token and PIN can set themselves up as a “server”.Now if they steal another's token they can off-line perform keyexchanges with their “server” until they find the PIN that works.Furthermore even non-insiders can break the system. Basically steal atoken and try every possible PIN until the token value is revealed as avalid signature. The validity of signatures can be easily verified asthe certification authority's public key is available to all.

As the authors themselves say “The user can verify the correctness ofits secret key by using the public key y and checking the equation g^(s)^(ID) =r_(ID·)y^(H(ID,r) ^(ID) ⁾”. Although implied as a feature of thescheme, for us it represents the problem: The existence of such anequation means that a PIN cannot safely be used in conjunction with thesecret signature, because this equation would allow an off-linedictionary attack to recover it. In some of the schemes that we willsuggest, no such equation exists. In some implementations, the only wayto verify the correctness of the secret key should be to use it tocomplete a key agreement with a genuine server.

These problems with exploiting standard PKI methods for two-factorauthentication are also pointed out by Wang [A29].

Pairings and PINs

With the advent of pairings new solutions became possible. A pairingworks on a special pairing-friendly elliptic curve [A2], [A7], withthree groups of the same prime order q, normally denoted

₁×

₂→

_(T). Here we assume the type-3 pairing [A9] where

₁ and

₂ are distinct, and where C=e(A, B), A ∈

₁, B ∈

₂, and C ∈

_(T). Note that elements from these groups cannot be mixed. This is veryimportant for us as we intend to place clients in

₁ and servers in

₂.

The main significant property of pairings is that of bilinearity

e(aA,bB)=e(bA,aB)=e(A,B)a^(b)

Assume the existence of an independent Trusted Authority (TA) with itsown master secret that is not required on-line—it is only responsiblefor off-line enrollment/registration and issuing of client and serverID-based secrets. This provides an extra layer of security and limitsthe damage caused by the loss of client or server long-term secrets.

Assume ID_(a) and Assume ID_(s) are Alice's identity and the server'sidentity respectively. H₁(.) is a hash function that hashes to a pointof order q in the group

₁, H₂(.) is a hash function that hashes to a point of order q in thegroup

₂. Then both the client Alice and the server are issued with secrets sAand sS respectively, where A=H₁(ID_(a)), S=H₂(ID_(s)) and s is the TA'smaster secret for use with a particular server. Of course knowing A andsA does not reveal s, as it is fully protected by a difficult discretelogarithm problem.

Consider now the simple SOK non-interactive key exchange algorithm[A17], by which Alice and the server can simultaneously mutuallyauthenticate and derive a common key. Alice calculates it as k=e(sA, S),and the server calculates it as k=e(A, sS). By bilinearity both areclearly the same. But now Alice extracts a PIN α of her choosing fromher secret, to divide it into the token part (s−α)A, and the PIN partαA. Clearly, when these are added together the full secret can bereconstituted. This idea (originally suggested in [A19]) forms astarting point for some examples of our proposed two-factorauthentication schemes.

The external Diffie-Hellman (XDH) assumption was first informallyimplied in [A19], and is now widely used. The XDH assumption formallystates that

-   -   1. The discrete logarithm problem (DLP), the computational        Diffie-Hellman problem (CDH), and the computational        co-Diffie-Hellman problem are all intractable in        ₁ and        ₂.    -   2. There exists an efficiently computable bilinear map (pairing)        ₁×        ₂→        _(T).    -   3. The decisional Diffie-Hellman problem (DDH) is intractable in        ₁.

The intuition is that despite the fact of an efficiently computabletype-3 pairing,

₁ acts as a “normal” Diffie-Hellman group. The DDH problem can bedescribed thus: Given a generator G, aG, bG and cG determine if c=ab.Consider now an insider attacker Bob with identity ID_(b) who is issuedwith sB where B=H₁(ID_(b)) and who gains possession of (s−α)A. If thehash function has performed its job correctly A and B are independentgenerators of order q in the cyclic group

₁, where B=wA for some unknown W. The only way to exploit his insideinformation is to keep trying a guess g and adding gA to (s−α)A until hecan use his inside knowledge of sB to identify when (s−α)A+gA=sA.Observe that on a type-1 pairing where

₁=

₂ this is easy as he could use the fact that e(A, sB)=e((s−α)A+gA, B)when g=α. However on a type-3 pairing this is not possible according tothe XDH assumption, as it implies the ability to solve the DecisionalDiffie-Hellman (DDH) problem in

₁.

Proof: Substitute A=wB and assume an Oracle which if given A, wA, xA andswA can determine if x=s. Then such an Oracle can be used to solve theDDH problem. Simply input G, aG, bG and cG and our Oracle will determineif b=c/a or c=ab.

So in practice Alice can extract a PIN α of her choosing from hersecret, to divide it into the token part (s−α)A, and the PIN part αA.Clearly, when these are added together the full secret can bereconstituted. A captured token is compatible with any possible PIN, andtherefore useless without it.

However, we must be very careful if we are to retain this property. PINextraction cannot be used with many pairing-based protocols if it isdesired to retain this property, for example, Boneh and Franklin's IBEscheme [A4], or the Chen and Kudla authenticated Key exchange [A5](Protocol 1), or any scheme which requires as part of its publicparameters a generator point P and P_(pub)=sP in G₂ (or any schemeimplemented on a type-1 pairing, for example the PSCAb scheme of [A29]).In such a case if Charlie were to capture Alice's token containing(s−α)A, Charlie could quickly find her PIN by testing all g until

e((s−α)A+gA, P)=e(A, sP)

This is another example of the off-line dictionary attack, and it isquite deadly.

If the server secret sS is ever leaked (that is revealing S and sS), orindeed any multiple of a known point by sin G2, then those values can beused to determine the PIN associated with a stolen token. It is ofcourse only common sense that this should be possible. If the serversecret is discovered, the discoverer can set up their own false server,and try every possible PIN against a stolen token, and thus discover thePIN.

Note that all clients who access any server validated by the same TAusing the same s, are at risk if just one of those servers iscompromised. For this reason each individual server should ideally beassociated with a different master secret s.

Interestingly we can deliberately create a circumstance where the servercan launch an off-line dictionary attack on the PIN, and exploit it as auseful feature. A server offers a simple PIN-recovery service to theclient (and so fully satisfies our condition 2). The client A sendsX=H(e((s−α)A+gA, S)) to the server S via a secure channel, whichrequires only the token and their incorrect guess of the PIN g. Then theclient presumably goes to some lengths to prove their identity (mother'smaiden name etc.). Once that is done to the server's satisfaction, theserver goes off-line and calculates Y=H(e(A, sS−iS)) for all possible iuntil he gets a match X=Y. Then i=α−g. This difference between the guessg and the correct PIN α can then be sent back to the client by email, orsome other method. Note that this does not reveal the PIN α to theserver.

It may be observed that the Trusted Authority's master secret representsa single point of failure in the overall system. However, as mentionedabove, this master secret can easily be secret-shared across a number ofindependent authorities [A4]. In the simplest case a pair of TAs mighteach independently generate secrets s₁ and s₂, and issue to a client s₁Aand s₂A which can be added by the client to create sA=s₁A+s₂A. Note thata Hardware Security Module (HSM)—as commonly used to protect PKI privatekeys—could be used for one or both of these calculations, to provide anextra level of security. Now the master secret s is not known to anysingle entity. In this way we can formally satisfy our condition 10.

A SOK-Based Protocol

It is important to observe that no Trusted Authority Public Key isrequired in this protocol. Combined with the idea of putting clientsexclusively in

₁ and servers exclusively in

₂, we overcome both of the problems associated with the attemptedPKI-based solution of Table 1.

Consider an attacker who steals a token and attempts to log on to theserver without knowing the PIN. They can derive the key from e((s−α)A,S), whereas the server will derive it correctly from e(A, sS). If theserver were then to send something encrypted with the correct key to theattacker, the attacker can find the PIN via an offline dictionary attackby trying to decrypt with every possible key derived from e((s−α)A+gA,S) until they find the value g which provides a valid decryption. Toprevent this we force the client to first submit an authenticatorderived from their calculated key. Only when the server is convincedthat the client has derived the correct key (using the correct PIN) willthe protocol be continued.

We are now ready to present our simple SOK based solution. Assuming theprotocol succeeds, both sides proceed to use the key K. See Table 2.

TABLE 2 A Simple SOK-based Protocol Alice - identity ID_(a) Server -identity ID_(s) ID_(a) → ← ID_(s) S = H₂(ID_(s)),A = H₁(ID_(a)) A =H₁(ID_(a)),S = H₂(ID_(s)) k = e((s − a)A + aA,S) k = e(A,sS) K = H(k) K= H(k) M = H(ID_(a)|ID_(s)|K) N = H(ID_(a)|ID_(s)|K) M → if M ≠ N, dropthe connection

Next we test this simple protocol against our 10 properties. As alreadyindicated we have succeeded in fulfilling properties 2 and 10. We alsosatisfy properties 1 and 9. Clearly a client can change their PINlocally, by simply adding/subtracting a multiple of A to/from theirtoken, so 4 is satisfied as well.

Condition 8 is more than satisfied—as pointed out by Boneh and Franklin[A4] the simple form of the client secret (as a multiple of theiridentity) means that it can be securely split up in a variety of ways,using a secret-sharing scheme. If the client's reconstituted secret isoff by a small amount, a mutual key can still be calculated by theserver, who can determine the extent of the error and compensate for it.For example if the client uses sA+□A as their secret, the server cancompensate by using sS+□S as its secret. Furthermore the server canafford to spend some time searching for the right □. Therefore thisscheme supports a key correction capability as required by our property6 to support a possible biometric factor. The inventors have realisedthat the same behavior can be exploited in other ways. If the clientwere to enter the wrong PIN, the server can easily determine the extentof the error δ using this key correction capability. So for example ifthe client entered 1224 instead of 1234, then the server could figureout that the PIN was “out” by 10. This behaviour can also be exploitedto intelligently respond to the wrong PIN being entered—if it is out bya lot, do not allow another attempt, if it is out by only one digit,then allow a further attempt, etc. A “coercion” convention could beagreed, for example if the PIN was just out by 1 in the last digit, theserver might interpret this as a client entering a PIN while underphysical threat, and respond appropriately.

That leaves us with properties 3, 5 and 7 still unsatisfied. Clearly theserver can impersonate any client to log in, as they can derive the keyfor any client C as e(C, sS), which violates 3 and 5. There are multipleother problems as well. The same pair of client and server will alwaysderive the same key k, so we are open to replay attacks. An attacker whocaptures Alice's token and eavesdrops an encrypted conversation, caneasily derive the associated PIN.

The challenge is to block these attacks and satisfy the remainingproperties while not losing the properties we have achieved already. Themain idea is to replace the SOK construction with another somewhat moreelaborate construction.

Wang's Protocol.

A powerful property of any authenticated key exchange protocol isresistance to a Key Compromise Impersonation (KCI) attack [A3]. A KeyCompromise Impersonation attack is where an attacker Charlie whocaptures Alice's credentials (token plus PIN) is in a position not onlyto log in to a server pretending to be Alice (which is only to beexpected), but can also pretend to be the server to the real Alice. OurSOK based protocol is wide open to this kind of attack as while theserver can calculate the key as e(A, sS), Charlie who has stolen Alice'scredentials can calculate the same value as e(sA, S), without knowingsS. The problem is the ability to exploit bilinearity to move thecomponent involving the master secret s from one side of the pairing tothe other. The solution is to “overload” each side of the pairing withother necessary calculations and hence to block this possibility.

Observe that in the client-server setting (rather than the peer-to-peersetting in which key exchange is usually described) KCI can be brokendown into server-to-client KCI, where the server can masquerade as aclient, or client-to-server KCI where the client can masquerade as aserver, or mutual KCI where both cases are possible. The point beingthat there could be a scenario where one or other is possible, but notboth. Here we prefer to block both possibilities.

In [A28], Wang suggests an efficient Identity-Based Authenticated KeyAgreement protocol. It is described in a peer-to-peer setting, but wewill adapt it to a client-server protocol by implementing it on a type-3pairing. The original protocol has a proof of security based on thedecisional bilinear Diffie-Hellman (DBDH) assumption. It provides uswith a drop-in replacement for the SOK protocol, while now providingsupport for our properties 3 and 5. Wang's protocol forms part of theP1363.3 proposed IEEE standard [A1].

We start with a much simplified version of Wang's protocol—Table 3. Forboth parties the agreed key k=e(A, S)^(sxy). Wang's protocol is notvulnerable to a KCI attack. However the Trusted Authority who haseavesdropped on P_(a) and P_(s) can easily calculate the key as e(P_(a),P_(s))^(s). This is as a direct result of the protocol not having theproperty (our number 7) of Perfect Forward Secrecy (PFS).

TABLE 3 Simplified Protocol based on [A28] Alice - identity ID_(a)Server - identity ID_(s) Generates random x < q Generates random y < qID_(a) → ← ID_(s) S = H₂(ID_(s)),A = H₁(ID_(a)) A = H₁(ID_(a)),S =H₂(ID_(s)) P_(a) = xA p_(s) = yS P_(a) → ← P_(s) k = e(x.((s−a)A+aA),P_(s)) k = e(P_(a),y.sS) K = H(k) K = H(k) M =H(ID_(a)|ID_(s)|P_(a)|P_(s)|K) N = H(ID_(a)|ID_(s)|P_(a)|P_(s)|K) M → ifM ≠ N, drop the connection

To include the property of PFS, Wang suggests this modification, whichincludes an in-tandem Diffie-Hellman into the key exchange—Table 4. Seealso [A5].

TABLE 4 Simplified Protocol with Perfect Forward Secrecy Alice -identity ID_(a) Server - identity ID_(s) Generates random x < qGenerates random y, w < q ID_(a) → ← ID_(s) S = H₂(ID_(s)),A =H₁(ID_(a)) A = H₁(ID_(a)),S = H₂(ID_(s)) P_(a) = xA P_(s) = yS, P_(g) =wA P_(a) → ← P_(s), P_(g) k = e(x.((s−a)A +aA),P_(s)) k = e(P_(a),y.sS)K = H(k|xP_(g)) K = H(k|wP_(a)) M = H(ID_(a)|ID_(s)|P_(a)|P_(s)|P_(g)|K)N = H(ID_(a)|ID_(s)|P_(a)|P_(s)|P_(g)|K) M → if M ≠ N, drop theconnection

Both keys are the same K=H(e(A,S)^(sxy)|xwA). In Wang's original paper[A28] it is suggested to use w=y. However this re-enables the KeyCompromise Impersonation attack, based on the observation that e(xsZ,yS)=e(xyZ, sS), so if sS is captured, Charlie can log in to S with anyidentity Z.

A Two-Factor Client-Server Protocol

As we have described it above Wang's protocol has a problem. Theidentities of A (and S) are not directly included in the keycalculation. So Bob can claim the identity Alice, but still log on usinghis own credentials. This is not satisfactory in some applications. Wanguses a rather complex method to fix this, as we will see. Assume H_(q)(.) is a hash function that hashes to a number in the range 1 to q(although according to Wang its OK to reduce this range to a size halfthe number of bits in q, with some performance gains). The new scheme isgiven in Table 5.

TABLE 5 Two-Factor Authentication Protocol Alice - identity ID_(a)Server - identity ID_(s) Generates random x < q Generates random y, w <q ID_(a) → ← ID_(s) S = H₂(ID_(s)),A = H₁(ID_(a)) A = H₁(ID_(a)),S =H₂(ID_(s)) P_(a) = xA → ← P_(s) = yS, P_(g) = wA π_(a) =H_(q)(P_(a)|P_(s)|P_(g)) , π_(s) = π_(s) = H_(q)(P_(s)|P_(a)|P_(g)) ,π_(a) = H_(q)(P_(s)|P_(a)|P_(g)) H_(q)(P_(a)|P_(s)|P_(g)) k = e((x +π_(a)).((s−a)A k = e(π_(a)A + P_(a), (y + π_(s))sS) + aA),π_(s)S +P_(s)) K = H(k|wP_(a)) K = H(k|xP_(g)) N = H(ID_(a)|ID_(s)|K) M =H(ID_(a)|ID_(s)|K) M → if M ≠ N, drop the connection

For both parties observe that k=e(A, S)^(s(x+π) ^(a) ^()(y+π) ^(s) ⁾.Observe that Alice's token and PIN are recombined locally before anyvalue calculated from them is transmitted. If the wrong PIN is entered,the server drops the connection (and only allows a few more attemptsbefore taking more drastic action with respect to the purported“Alice”).

There is a wide-spread concern that pairing-based protocols may beintrinsically too slow for real world application. However recentprogress in efficient implementation has clearly answered the doubters(for a review of recent progress see [A21]). We implemented the protocolin Table 5 using a Barreto-Naehrig (BN) curve [A2] at the standardAdvanced Encryption Standard-128 (AES-128) bit level of security, on a64-bit Intel i5 520M processor, clocked at 2.4 GHz, using a mixture of Cand some automatically generated assembly language.

As well as using optimal techniques for the pairing itself [A21], onecan exploit the Fuentes-Castañeda et al. method for fast hashing to

₂ [A8], the well-known Gallant, Lambert and Vanstone (GLV) method forpoint multiplication in

₁ [A11], and the Galbraith-Scott technique for fast point multiplicationin

₂ [A10].

Even without any precomputation [A21] the above protocol is fullypractical. On our test hardware the server side of the calculationrequired 4.48 milliseconds and the client side required 4.10milliseconds.

Note that Wang's protocol is not the only choice here. There is forexample an alternative protocol due to S. Wang et al. [A27] which alsosupports a PIN and key correction. It is rather more elegant thanWang's, and claims to be faster. It also has a nice and simple proof ofsecurity. Another alternative is Protocol 2 from Chen and Kudla [A5].

Consider the implications of a successful hack on the server whichreveals its secret sS. Note that there are no client related secrets(token, PIN or biometric) stored on the server. However this attackobviously allows a false server to be set up, onto which clients mightbe convinced to log on. If the successful hacker then captures a token,they can easily find the associated PIN. However they cannot use thecaptured server secret to log onto the genuine server, and access itsdata. They cannot enroll any other clients. So we fully achieve ourproperty 5 and although loss of the server secret is serious, theeffects are to a maximum extent mitigated.

By removing the role of client registration from the server andentrusting it instead to an independent third party, we have enabled aPKI/SSL-like solution to the problem of two-factor authentication. Wemaintain that the scheme shown in Table 5 is a very suitable alternativefor any Web-based application that currently uses Username/Password,being simultaneously more user-friendly and more secure. However, itrequires the client, as well as the server, to carry out a pairing.

A number of examples of protocols that improve on, and/or providealternatives to, the above described protocols will now be described.Some of the protocols and implementations meet some but not all of the10 security features listed above.

M-Pin Protocols

A number of M-Pin protocols, which feature an efficient two-factorclient-server authentication mechanism, will now be described. Inparticular, as an M-Pin client will often be implemented in anenvironment with a limited computational capability, we show how tolighten the load on the client side of the protocol. Our descriptionhere is in the context of a Barreto-Naehrig (BN) curve [B4] at theAES-128 bit level of security, but the ideas contained here easilyextend to other contexts.

As mentioned above, M-Pin is a zero-knowledge authentication protocolwhich authenticates a client to a server. Its unique feature is that itallows a short PIN number 11 to be extracted from the client secret tocreate a token+PIN combination, facilitating two-factor authentication.The idea can easily be extended to support multi-factor authentication.Moreover, the second factor 11 extracted from the client secret 7 doesnot have to be a PIN. It can be any string of data.

A strong client-server protocol should (a) authenticate the client tothe server, (b) authenticate the server to the client, and (c) shouldresult in a negotiated encryption key with which subsequentcommunications can be encrypted. As mentioned above, the standard way ofimplementing this to date has been by using a Username/Passwordmechanism to authenticate the client to the server, and use the wellknown TLS/SSL protocol to authenticate the server to the client, and toestablish the encryption key. The weakest link here is theUsername/Password mechanism which is widely regarded as being broken.SSL itself has, to a lesser extent, been weakened by intensive scrutinywhich has revealed some exploitable vulnerabilities.

To replace Username/Password, multi-factor authentication is the mostoften touted solution. Of all the possible form-factors the simpleATM-like combination of a token and a PIN number is the most userfamiliar and user-friendly. But until very recently no suitable purelycryptographic protocol was available to support it, other than thosethat used simplistic methods derived from classic symmetriccryptography. Implementations invariably involved some kind of(potentially expensive) hardware token. Cryptographic solutions based onmodern asymmetric cryptography suffered from weaknesses which allowed anattacker, in possession of some easily accessible side information, andwho had captured a software token, to mathematically immediatelydetermine the associated PIN number. Therefore they were not genuinelytwo-factor.

Here we describe the M-Pin technology solution. This comes in twoflavours (a) a basic M-Pin protocol which simply replacesUsername/Password while continuing to leverage SSL, and (b) anM-Pin-Full variant which also replaces SSL.

As described with respect to FIG. 1, an important aspect of M-Pin is theinvolvement of a third party, referred to as the Trusted Authority 4 inthe description of FIG. 1. In classic Username/Password schemes theclient registers directly with the server, who maintains an “encrypted”(in fact hashed) file of client passwords. So the server is not justresponsible for day-to-day operations, it is responsible for clientregistration as well. Note that this is in contrast with (the much moresuccessful) SSL protocol, which already involves a third party in theform of a certificate issuing authority (CA), such as Verisign. Asmentioned above, this certificate based technology is known as thePublic Key Infrastructure (PKI). With the likes of SSL, serverregistration is quite separate from day-to-day server operation. WithM-Pin we do something similar for the client—we separate out theday-to-day server functionality from client registration, which is nowhandled by a Trusted Authority (TA). So a TA is to M-Pin what a CA is toSSL/PKI. One of the huge benefits of this approach is that a break-in tothe server does not cause nearly as much damage, as long as the TAremains inviolate. Just as hacking a single SSL server is not nearly asbad as hacking Verisign.

The TA issues client and server secrets. Using M-Pin, no client secrets,or values derived from client secrets, are stored on the server. WithM-Pin, Alice proves to the server that she is in possession of a validsecret, while revealing nothing about it.

Pairing-Based Cryptography

As further mentioned above, to realise our solution we will beexploiting the relatively new science of pairing-based cryptography(PBC). Pairing-Based Crypto provides an extra structure which oftenallows solutions to complex problems that proved intractable to thestandard mathematics of Public-Key Cryptography. The Poster child forPBC was Identity-Based Encryption, whereby the identity of a clientbecame their public key. The idea was around for a long time, buttraditional cryptographic primitives repeatedly failed to produce asolution. However with the introduction of PBC solutions were found[B6].

As also mentioned above, a Type-3 pairing [B12] is a mapping

₁×

₂→

_(T). The groups

₁,

₂ and

_(T) are all of the same prime order q. A pairing works on a specialpairing-friendly elliptic curve [B4], [B11]. For a BN curve

₁ are points on the curve over the base field F_(p),

₂ are points on the sextic twist of the curve over the quadraticextension field F_(p) ₂ , and

_(T) are elements in the cyclotomic subgroup embedded in the finiteextension field F_(p) ₁₂ . Parameter p designates the prime modulus ofthe pairing. The pairing itself is written as a function with two inputsC=e(P, Q) where P ∈

₁, Q ∈

₂ and C ∈

_(T). It is realised that a BN pairing-friendly curve is a perfect fitfor security at the AES-128 level, and so we will assume its use here.As mentioned above, the most important property of the pairing is itsbilinearity:

e(aA,bB)=e(bA,aB)=e(A,B)^(ab)

To create a client-server protocol, it is important that client andserver secrets should be kept distinct. A simple way to exploit thestructure of a Type-3 pairing is to put client secrets in

₁ and server secrets in

₂. For a Type-3 pairing there is no computable isomorphism between thesegroups, even though both are of the same order.

As mentioned with respect to FIGS. 1 to 5, the Trusted Authority will bein possession of a Master Secret s. The Master Secret s may be a randomelement of F_(q). The unique secret value s may be associated with theTrusted Authority's support for a particular server. A client secret isof the form s. H(ID), where ID is the client identity and H(.) a hashfunction which maps to a point A on

₁. Here we follow [B20] and assume that H is modelled as a random oraclewhere H(ID)=r_(ID). P where r_(ID) is random and P is a fixed generatorof

₁. The server will be issued with secret sQ, where Q is a fixedgenerator of

₂. In other words, secret sQ represents a fixed point Q on a specialelliptic curve multiplied by the TA secret s. The fixed point Q may bechosen arbitrarily by the TA. The server is also issued with thecoordinates of the fixed point Q. Even if a hacker gets hold of sQ andQ, the hacker would not be able to determine the master secret s sinceit is protected by a discrete logarithmic problem. Note that, in someimplementations, this will be the only multiple of s in

₂ ever provided by the TA. In some implementations, servers will alwaysbe associated with their own unique master secrets. In other words, thevalue of s is unique for every server. The curve is the same curve onwhich point A is located but points A and Q belong to different groups,

₁ and

₂, of the same order q.

Note that the TA functionality can be distributed using a secret sharingscheme, to remove from the overall system a single point of failure. Inthe simplest possible case there may be two Distributed TrustedAuthorities (DTA), each of which independently maintains their own shareof the master key. So s=s₁+s₂, and each DTA issues a part-client secrets₁H(ID) and s₂H(ID), which the client adds together to form their fullsecret. Now even if one DTA is compromised, the client secret is stillsafe.

An important idea is that a PIN number α will be extracted by the clientfrom their secret, to create the token [B16]. Our two-factors ofauthentication are then this memorised PIN and the remaining token. Tobe explicit, for an individual Alice whose identity hashes to a point A∈

₁, her full secret as issued by the TA is the point sA. This is splitinto the token (s−α)A, and the chosen PIN number α. The token is createdby calculating aA and subtracting it from sA. The full secret can bereconstructed from its two components by Alice as sA=(s−α)A+αA.Consequently, the token (s−α)A may in some examples be a point on theelliptic curve and could be any string of data representing thecoordinates of that point. As described with respect to FIG. 1, thetoken 10 is stored in the client. The PIN 11 is remembered by the userand entered when the user 6 wants the client 2 to establish a sessionwith the authentication server 3. The PIN may be chosen by a human beingor may be generated automatically by a computer. However, the PIN can bechanged by the client, at any time, without the involvement of any otherparty.

M-Pin

This proposed protocol derives from a long history of Identity-Basedidentification (IBI) protocols, that originate with the seminal work ofFiat and Shamir [B10]. The basic idea is for a Prover to identify itselfusing an identity-related secret issued by a Trusted Authority, whilerevealing nothing of that secret to the Verifier. This is often called azero-knowledge proof, as proof of possession of the secret isestablished while revealing nothing of the secret itself. It isimportant to emphasise that an identification protocol results only inthe Verifier (in this case the server) either accepting or rejecting theProver (in this case the client).

Pairing-based IBI protocols were studied in depth by Bellare et al.[B5], as part of a larger framework whereby many standard identification(SI) methods could be “surfaced” as IBI schemes, or indeed as fullIdentity Based Signature (IBS) schemes. By “pushing” some proposed (butunproven) IBS schemes down to their underlying SI description, they wereable to resurface them, but this time with full security proofs. Theyconsidered some pairing-based schemes, the best of which appears to bethat which first appeared as an IBS scheme proposed independently by[B8] and [B24]. Independently (of [B5]), Kurosawa and Heng [B13] came upwith more-or-less the same idea. All of this research owes a debt to theoriginal (non-identity based) short signature scheme of Boneh, Lynn andShacham [B7].

The IBI method is the one we will exploit as a starting point here. Notethat in standard IBI protocols the Verifier has no secrets. The Proveris simply trying to prove that they are entitled to their claimedidentity, to anyone that is interested. However, in some examplesdescribed below, only the unique verifier in possession of the secret sQis in a position to carry out the verification. By doing this, a corruptVerifier cannot be used as an Oracle against which to test PIN guessesby someone who had stolen the associated token. Therefore we assume thatthe server which is running SSL or its equivalent, also takesresponsibility for protecting sQ. The server may store sQ in securestorage in data storage 33. Another change we make is to split theclient secret into token and PIN as described above.

An M-Pin protocol is shown in Table 6. Observe that on the client sideall of the computation is in the simpler group

₁. On the server side the product of two pairings can be calculatedusing standard multi-pairing methods [B17], and will cost much less thantwo separate pairing computations. The correctness of the protocol canbe quickly established using the bilinearity property.

TABLE 6 M-Pin Alice - identity ID_(a) Server Generates random x < qGenerates random y < q A = H₁(ID_(a)) A = H₁(ID_(a)) U = xA ID_(a),U → ←y V = −(x + y)((s − a)A + aA) → g = e(V,Q).e(U + yA,sQ) if g ≠ 1, refusethe connection

Using bilinearity it can be shown that:

$\begin{matrix}{g = {{e\left( {V,Q} \right)} \cdot {e\left( {{U + {yA}},{sQ}} \right)}}} \\{= {{e\left( {{{- \left( {x + y} \right)}{sA}},Q} \right)} \cdot {e\left( {{{xA} + {yA}},{sQ}} \right)}}} \\{= {{e\left( {A,Q} \right)}^{{- {({x + y})}}s} \cdot {e\left( {A,Q} \right)}^{{({x + y})}s}}}\end{matrix}$

Consequently, if the correct PIN is received in the client, to allow itto reconstruct the full client secret, g will be equal to 1.

The protocol of Table 6 will now be described in more detail withrespect to FIGS. 6 and 7. With respect to FIG. 6, at step 6.1 the client2 receives a PIN guess 11′ from the user. As shown in Table 6, at step6.2, the client then hashes its identity to a point A on the ellipticcurve in

₁. The identity may be retrieved from storage 23. At step 6.3, theclient also generates a random x and carries out a multiplication of thepoint A, on the elliptic curve, to another point U. Multiplications andadditions on an elliptic curve are known by the skilled person and willnot be described in detail here. The value of x is lower than the primeorder q of the groups

₁,

₂ and

_(T). At step 6.4, the client issues a commitment to the server 3 thatit wants to authenticate and sends its identity and the coordinates ofthe point U on the curve. The client then receives a challenge y fromthe server at step 6.5, where y is a random number also lower than q. Atstep 6.6, the client then recovers the client secret from the PIN andthe token and multiplies, on the elliptic curve, the point correspondingto the client secret, with the sum of −x and −y, to obtain thecoordinates of another point V. The client then sends these coordinatesto the server to allow the server to authenticate the client. At step6.7, the client may receive a notification of the outcome of theauthentication process from the server. This will be described in moredetail below.

The steps of FIG. 6 may be carried out by the processor 21 of the client2 executing the instructions of the authentication program 25, describedwith respect to FIG. 2.

With respect to FIG. 7, the server 3 receives the commitment toauthenticate at step 7.1, including the claimed identity of the clientand the coordinates of a point U on the elliptic curve. The server mayalso have received another message from the client prior to step 7.1,indicating that the client wishes to establish a connection. The servermay have invited the client to transmit the identity and the coordinatesof U. At step 7.2, the server then generates random y, also lower thanq, and transmits the value of y as a challenge to the client. At step7.3, the server hashes the client identity to a point A on the ellipticcurve. At step 7.4, the server receives the coordinates of a point V onthe elliptic curve.

The server then calculates a product of pairings at step 7.5. The servermay calculate the two pairings first and then multiply the two pairingstogether. Alternatively, the server may calculate a multi-pairing whichallows the product of pairings to be calculated much faster. The firstpairing takes as input point V and a point Q and maps them to an elementin

_(T). As indicated in the description of FIG. 6, V is a point on thecurve in

₁ obtained by starting from the point corresponding to the clientsecret. As already mentioned above, Q is a fixed generator of

₂. The other pairing takes as input the coordinates of another point in

₁, obtained from starting from a point corresponding to the identity ofthe client, and the point corresponding to the server secret sQ and mapsthem to an element in

_(T). The point sQ is of course another point in

₂. The point in

₁ is obtained by adding, on the elliptic curve, the point U in

₁, the coordinates of which were received from the client in thecommitment of step 7.1, and a point, of course also in

₁, obtained by multiplying a point corresponding to the client identitywith the random value y. The results of the product of the pairings givea value g. Because of bilinearity, the value of g should be equal to 1if the correct PIN was entered and therefore the correct client secretwas recovered. In step 7.6, the server checks if the value of g equalsto 1 and if it does equal to 1 the server authenticates the client instep 7.7 and accepts the connection in step 7.8. Accepting theconnection may involve transmitting a message to the client to informthe client that the client has been authenticated.

If, conversely, the value of g does not equal to 1, the serverdetermines in step 7.9 that the client is not authenticated. The serverthen has a number of options for proceeding. In step 7.10 it can eitherreject the connection immediately or it can carry out an error handlingprocess to determine the extent to which the PIN must have beenincorrect, as will be described below with respect to FIG. 8.

The steps of FIG. 7 may be carried out by the processor 31 of the server3 executing the instructions of the server authentication program 34,described with respect to FIG. 3.

It will be realised that the order of some of the steps in FIGS. 6 and 7can be varied. For example, the PIN may not be received until it is usedin step 6.6. Moreover, the server may generate y before it receives thecommitment and/or it may hash the client identity after it receives thecoordinates of point V.

The server may use any suitable pairing, as the skilled person wouldappreciate, to carry out the pairings. For example, the client may usethe efficient R-ate pairing. Moreover, although it has been describedthat elliptic curves are used, any suitable algebraic curves may beused. For example, hyper-elliptic curves may be used instead of ellipticcurves.

Protocol Outputs

As mentioned above, at the end of protocol run the client still does notknow whether or not they have succeeded. This is important as action tohandle unsuccessful connections can now be taken appropriately. Thisresponsibility may be passed off to another non-cryptographic process,which is informed by the available protocol outputs. What outputs shoulda protocol like M-Pin return after completion? For Username/Password theresponse is typically a boolean—true or false. The outcome is basicallyto either allow access or refuse it, but also some simple mechanism inplace to block on-line password guessing attacks.

In the event of a successful outcome, there is not much more to be done.The client must have been registered correctly with the TrustedAuthority, and therefore has been issued with a valid token and hasinput a valid PIN, associated with their claimed identity. The responsemay simply be that the connection is established. In the event ofprotocol failure, there appears to be relatively little for the serverto work with to formulate an appropriate response. However, in someexamples, the server may implement a 3-strikes-and-you-are-out strategyto prevent an attacker who has captured the token from trying allpossible PINs until they hit on the right one. Note that the server doesnot necessarily even have a list of registered users—it would be naturalthat such a list should be maintained and managed by the TrustedAuthority.

It may help the server 3 to decide on an appropriate response if (a)they knew if the failing client had a valid token, and (b) if they knewthe extent of the error in the entered PIN. There is, in someimplementations, a way to derive from a failed protocol run the extentof the PIN error. If the extent of the PIN error is outside of the rangeof valid PINs, then this implies that the “client” does not have a validtoken.

Observe that in the M-Pin protocol both the client and the server havethe same value of the master secret s involved in their calculations. Ifa client enters an incorrect PIN, it is as if they have instead used s+δin their calculation, where S is the extent of their error. The servercan then search for δ by iterating through all the possibilities forsQ+δ. Q on its side, until the protocol outcome is correct. Byexploiting the bilinearity of the pairing, this can be done in a wayrequiring only one multiplication in

_(T) for each candidate δ. In some examples, we can do even better. Ifthe final step of the protocol results in a value of g≠1, then in factg=e(U+yA, Q)^(δ). To find δ requires the calculation of a pairing andthe solution of a discrete logarithm problem.

One appropriate algorithm for achieving this is the method of Pollard'sKangaroos [B15]. This is a “square root” algorithm, which means that fora 4-digit PIN only a few hundred multiplications in

_(T) will be required to find δ, which is completely practical.

In the case where the extent of the PIN error can be determined by theserver (and this potentially applies to any two-factor authenticationscheme, but in particular to the protocols suggested here), a moreintelligent response is possible rather than the classic and simplistic“3-strikes-and-you-are-out” mechanism. A server might attempt tointelligently distinguish between a bad entity who has captured thetoken and is trying to find the PIN by trying all possible combinations,and the good entity who has either mistyped their PIN, or inadvertentlytyped in the wrong PIN. One simple way to exploit knowledge of PIN erroris to not punish again a user who enters the same wrong PIN more thanonce. Note that it is of no value to a bad entity to guess the same PINtwice, so nothing is lost by doing this.

In the case of a mistyped PIN, the error will typically be in only onedigit. Again this can be detected by the server from the PIN error.Therefore we suggest an example of a more elaborate type of scoringmechanism. For example, a user may only be locked out if they reach anerror score of more than 10. A completely wrong PIN scores 4, the samewrong PIN entered again scores 0, a PIN out by just 1 digit scores 2,and a PIN out by just 2 digits scores 3. In this way a genuine goodentity will struggle to reach a score of 10, whereas a bad entity willtypically get there after just 3 attempts. Of course, the maximum errorscore of 10 is just an example and another maximum error score may beselected.

Note that other side-information will be available to the server whichcan be folded into an intelligent decision on whether or not to lock outa particular identity. The server will also know the IP address of theclient, and the time of the attempted log-in. Combined with the identityand PIN error this amounts to the who, what, where and when of eachfailed connection.

One exemplary process of handling errors in the second factor will nowbe described with respect to FIG. 8. In the process described withrespect to FIG. 8, the PIN may be a four digit number. However, it willbe realised that the error handling process may be applicable to PINsthat take any form. Although the error handling process will bedescribed with respect to PINs, the error handling process can be usedto find errors or differences in any string of data that is used as afactor of the client secret. It can be used with a factor, of a secret,that corresponds to any type of information reducible to a string ofdigits or a number. At step 8.1, the server 3 determines that the PINentered in the client 2 was wrong. If this is the first time a PIN wasentered during the current session, the server sets the value of anerror counter n to 0. At step 8.2, the server determines the extent ofthe PIN error as described above. The server finds δ from the value ofg, obtained at the end of the protocol, and by using g=e(U+yA, Q)^(δ).The server then checks if the PIN is 1 digit out at step 8.3 and if soadds an error count “a” to the error counter n at step 8.4. The serverthen proceeds to step 8.10. The value of error count “a” may for examplebe 2. However, in other implementations, the error count “a” may belower or higher than 2. If the PIN is found to not be out by 1 digit atstep 8.3, the process instead continues to step 8.5 and checks if thepin was out by two digits. If the PIN was out by two digits, anappropriate error count “b” is added to the error counter n at step 8.6.The server then proceeds to step 8.10. The error count “b” for a PIN outby 2 may for example be 3. However, in other implementations, the errorcount “b” may be lower or higher than 3. If the PIN is neither out by 1or 2 digits, the process checks if the PIN has been entered before atstep 8.7. If the PIN has been entered before the server 3 may notincrease the error count since, as mentioned above, there is no value toa bad entity to enter the same wrong PIN more than once. Step 8.8 showsthat the error count is increased by a value “c” when it is determinedthat the wrong PIN has been entered earlier in the current session. Asdescribed, the value of “c” may be equal to 0. However, in otherimplementations, if appropriate, the value of “c” may be greater than 0.If the PIN is not out by either 1 or 2 digits and it has not beenentered before, the server 3 determines that it must be a completelywrong PIN entered for the first time and adds an appropriate error count“d” to the error counter at step 8.9. The value of error count “d” maybe 4 but it could be lower or higher in other implementations.

The server then proceeds to check whether the value of the error counteris lower than a maximum error count N_(max) at step 8.10. As describedabove, this maximum error count can be 10 but it could also be lower orhigher. It may be anything from a very low value, such as 2 or 3, to avalue much higher than 10. Of course the maximum error count alsodepends on the values of “a”, “b”, “c” and “d” and could be any suitablevalue selected by taking in to account the values of “a”, “b”, “c” and“d”. If the value of the error counter is smaller than the maximum errorcount value, the server may invite the client to try to authenticateagain at step 8.12. The client may then ask the user 6 to try a new PIN.However, before it invites the client to try a new PIN it may checkwhether there is any other information that should be considered at step8.11, such as but not limited to the location of the client, the time,the identity of the client or the IP address of the client. The servermay store various rules for determining how to proceed based on thisadditional information. If the server still decides to invite the client2 to try a new PIN, it will send a message to the client to do so. Ifthe client receives a new wrong PIN from the user 6, the process willrestart from step 8.1. If the PIN is wrong again the value of the errorcounter n is increased as described with respect to steps 8.3 to 8.9.

If the value of the error counter n at step 8.10 is equal to or higherthan the maximum error count, again the server may consider if there isany additional information that may change a default decision to rejectthe connection. As before, the additional information may comprise thelocation of the client, the time, the client identity and the IPaddress. The server will consider this information at step 8.13 and if adecision is made to invite the client to try a new PIN, the processproceeds to step 8.12. If instead a decision is made to reject toconnection, the server will reject the connection at step 8.14. Theserver will also proceed to reject the connection at step 8.14 if theadditional information considered at step 8.11 indicates that theconnection should be rejected even though the error count is lower thanthe maximum error count. It may also inform the client 2 that theaccount has been blocked and that it will need to contact the TA 4 toreset its account or open a new account. This could involve the clientbeing issued with a new client secret 7.

It will be realised that the process described with respect to FIG. 8 isjust one process for error correction and various modifications andvariations are contemplated. For example, the consideration ofadditional information may take place before or after the value of theerror counter is adjusted and checked. Moreover, in alternativeimplementations, the server may not consider any additional information.Moreover, although specific PIN errors of 1 or 2 digits are consideredin FIG. 8, the error counter may also be adjusted for other PIN errors.For example, the process may involve increasing the error counter with aspecific value if the PIN is 3 or 4 digits out or another specific PINerror has been determined. The error count value may also vary dependingon which digit of the PIN it is that it incorrect and the extent oferror in that digit. Moreover, the server may not use an error counterparameter. Instead, it may store the error value of each authenticationattempt. The server may add the error values up each time it needs todetermine whether to invite the client to authenticate again or it maymake a decision based on the separate error values.

Although the error handling process has been described with respect tothe specific protocol of Table 6, the error handling process can be usedwith any protocol that would allow an error in a factor of a clientsecret to be determined. It may apply to any multi-factor protocol wherethe extent of error in one of the factors can be determined by theauthenticating entity.

Moreover, although the error handling has been described with respect toa four digit PIN, the error handling may be applied to a PIN of lengthshorter than 4 digits or a PIN of length 5 or 6 digits or even longer.The error handling process may be applied to a PIN of any number ofdigits that forms one of the factors of the multi-factor secret.However, it will be realised that the longer the PIN the longer the timeit takes to calculate the error.

We will now consider the security of the proposed scheme. The underlyingIBI scheme we are using was proven secure by [B5], in that breaking thescheme is shown to be as difficult as the one-more ComputationalDiffie-Hellman problem. They considered the protocol in the context of aType-1 pairing (for which

₁=

₂). This can also be considered as a Type-3 pairing in which thereexists a computable isomorphism between

₁ and

₂. The problem of transferring a security proof from a Type-1 to aType-3 pairing was considered by Smart and Vercauteren [B20]. Theirsimplest solution was to “relativise” the security proof in the contextof an Oracle which was made available to an attacker and whichimplemented the isomorphism. The fact that such an isomorphism is notknown, evidently does not weaken the proof.

Our next concern is that an attacker who captures a token should not beable to determine the associated PIN number without the willingparticipation of the server. A particularly powerful attacker would beone who was himself a client of the server, or who was able to recruit acoalition of insiders willing to provide their full client secrets.

So consider an attacker who was in possession of sA, sB, sC . . . andthe victims token (s−α)Z. Would it be possible to continually add Z tothe victims token and to distinguish the case when it too became equalto sZ? This is exactly the Generalized Decisional Diffie-Hellman problemas considered by Bao, Deng and Zhu [B3]. They proved that this reducedto the standard DDH (Decisional Diffie-Hellman) assumption in the group

₁.

That the DDH problem is hard in

₁ on a Type-3 pairing is known as the XDH assumption, first informallyimplied in [B16], and made explicit in [B2].

Finally consider an attacker who has access to the victim token andmanages to eavesdrop a run of the protocol, or perhaps succeeds via a“phishing” attack to get the client to engage in a protocol run directlywith it. Such an attacker can harvest the values zA, (s−α)A, and zsA,the first and last values obtained from the protocol run. However, tofind the PIN requires the attacker to be able to distinguish zA, sA andzsA from three values without this relationship, which is again coveredby the XDH assumption.

Note that the full client secret is reconstructed from the token and thePIN before it is used in the IBI protocol. Also the server does nottransmit anything to the client which might be of use in determining aPIN—in fact it only transmits the random challenge y.

Consider now a successful break-in by a hacker into the server. Beforeconsidering the implications of this, it is worth pointing out that theserver secret, (independent of the number of clients is supports), isjust the single point sQ ∈

_(2.) Therefore it would be easy to protect this secret inside of aHardware Security Module (HSM). However assuming that this secret iscaptured, this would allow the hacker to set up a false server to whomclients could be attracted. It would also allow the hacker to find thePIN associated with a captured token. In fact this must be true of anytwo-factor authentication scheme, as knowing server secrets, a falseserver can be created and PIN guesses can be tested against it. Howeverthe successful hacker is not able to reconstruct full client secrets,and so cannot itself log onto the genuine server and into clientaccounts. So the potential for mischief is greatly reduced.

In some implementations, the security may be increased further by usinga distributed server arrangement as already described with respect toFIG. 5. In the system of FIG. 5, the server secret is issued by the TAin two parts, s₁Q and s₂Q, which are added to create the full serversecret sQ, where s=s₁+s₂. The protocol is completed while keeping thetwo secrets, s₁Q and s₂Q separate. On the server side the part of thecalculation involving the server secret is of the pairing e(X, sQ) forsome random X. But by the magic of bilinearity e(X, sQ)=e(X, s₁Q). e(X,s₂Q).

So for example the server could have two HSMs (each from a differentmanufacturer). One would store s₁Q and the other s₂Q. One wouldcalculate e(X, s₁Q) and the other e(X, s₂Q). The server process wouldthen simply multiply these values and continue with the protocol asnormal. However knowing e(X, s₁Q) for example, and knowing X, does notreveal anything about s₁Q. That is the reverse pairing problem which isbelieved to be hard. So no single entity ever knows the server secretsQ, and a possible single-point-of-failure is eliminated.

As shown in FIG. 5, this could be implemented as two different servers 3a, 3 b and a proxy 3 c that receives the results of the pairings fromthe two servers and multiplies them to continue with the protocol asnormal. Alternatively, one of the servers may be the main server and itmay receive the result of the pairing in the other server from thatother server. As yet another alternative, as mentioned above, the twoservers may be two secure modules of the same server.

With respect to FIGS. 5 and 7, if the server secret is stored as twoserver secrets, step 7.5 will be modified to include each HSM 3 a, 3 bcarrying out a pairing taking as an input its respective server secretand the point U+yA, and then carrying out a product of the two pairings.In other words, one of the servers 3a would calculate e(U+yA, s₁Q) andthe other server 3 b would calculate e(U+yA, s₂Q). The two pairings maybe sent to the proxy 3 c for the proxy to carry out the product or oneof the HSMs that stores a part of the full server secret may carry outthe multiplication of the two pairings.

It is appreciated, as was mentioned with respect to FIG. 2, that forwidespread deployment the client side of this protocol might be requiredto be implemented in the JavaScript language inside of a browser,ideally even inside of a browser implemented on a low powered mobiledevice. On the face of it this is a daunting prospect. HoweverJavaScript engines have been improving radically over the last fewyears, as has the processing power of mobile devices.

Examining the client side of the M-Pin protocol we see that it requirestwo point multiplications in

₁, These point multiplications in

₁ could benefit from an efficient endomorphism that exists on BN curves,as described by Gallant, Lambert and Vanstone [C1]. This makes themroughly twice as fast. Alternatively, other types of curves and methodsof calculating the multiplications can be used instead.

For laptops and desktops the client-side timings are imperceptible. Sometimings for mobile devices are shown in Table 7. On the server side, oncontemporary Intel processors, the processing time is of the order of afew milliseconds per connection.

TABLE 7 M-Pin Client side timings M-Pin timings Manufacturer Model OSBrowser (in seconds) Apple iPhone 4 iOS 6 Safari 2.5 Apple iPhone 5 iOS6 Safari 1 Apple iPad 2 iOS 6 Safari 1 Samsung Galaxy S3 Android Chrome1 Motorola MB256 Android Firefox 3

The scheme described with respect to FIGS. 6 and 7 could be run underthe protection of SSL on the server side. However, in other examples,SSL may not be used. A pairing-based identity-based encryption (IBE)alternative to the PKI based SSL may be considered, as M-Pin is itself apairing-based and identity-based protocol. The IBE protocol of Sakai andKasahara [C2] may for example be used. This protocol requires no pairingcalculation on the client side, and a single pairing on the server side.So an implementation of M-Pin already contains all of the importantbuilding blocks for implementing IBE using the BN curve. In someapplications, only authentication is required and the client and theserver do not need to establish an encryption key. Accordingly, in someimplementations, an encryption key is not established.

Moreover, in the protocol of Table 6 the client does not authenticatethe server. If authentication of the server is required, this can becarried out using SSL or using another suitable scheme.

M-Pin Full

In some examples, there is also provided a protocol that replaces thefunctionality of SSL as well as Username/Password. We will now describea number of ways of achieving this as well.

The protocol of Table 6 can be extended to also establish a key in theclient and the server. An example of an extended cryptographic protocolthat also establishes a session key for encrypting and decrypting futuremessages is shown in Table 8.

One problem with pairing based key exchange protocols as described inthe literature is that the protocols are “balanced” in terms ofcomputation load and the client is also required to calculate a pairing.This is generally recognised as a substantial calculation, even with allof the improvements that have been made over recent years [B1]. All ofthe existing schemes reviewed above require both parties to calculate apairing. This is particularly unsuitable in a context where a lowpowered client may be attempting a key exchange with a high poweredserver.

One idea is to off-load the calculation of the pairing to acomputationally better endowed pairing server, which can do the heavylifting for us. In some of the examples described herein, a method isprovided to “unbalance” the protocols, so that the client is relieved ofthe burden of the pairing calculation by the server. If the pairingcalculation is of C=e(P, Q), the idea is that P and

would be passed to the pairing server, which would calculate the pairingC=e(P, Q) and pass back the value of C.

However this has obvious security implications. At least one of theparameters P or

will be a sensitive secret, and we do not want to pass this value to anot-necessarily trusted party. The value of P and Q should not be openlycommunicated. Assuming that P is the secret parameter, we can exploitthe properties of the pairing to “mask” P in such a way that we cancheaply “unmask” the pairing value when it is returned to us. Sogenerate a random mask m, and pass mP and

to the pairing server, which returns D=e(mP, Q). We then recoverC=D^(1/m). This all works due to bilinearity as e(P,Q)=e(mP,Q)^(1/m).

The idea of delegating a pairing calculation is considered byChevalier-Mames et al. [B9]. They consider elaborate solutions, giventhe possibility that a malicious server might respond with a wrongresult, which might in turn cause an unfortunate outcome for theprotocol. But in our case the final key is derived directly from thepairing value, and so a false pairing value simply causes the protocolto fail, in a way indistinguishable to, say, a communications failure.Therefore the solution above is adequate for our purposes.

There are however a couple of concerns. At first glance it is importantthat the client check that the received value of D is of the correctorder. This is to prevent a small subgroup confinement attack [B14].Recall that the pairing value is an element of F_(p) ₁₂ , and shouldhave a prime order q that is 256 bits in size for a BN curve. However arandom value in F_(p) ₁₂ can have an order that is any exact divisor ofp¹²−1 where p is the prime modulus. Imagine that there exist values oforder 3. Then a malicious pairing server in cahoots with an entitymasquerading as a M-Pin server can complete the protocol shown in Table8 successfully by passing back such a value t, because the client,independent of its masking value m, can calculate just one of 3 possiblevalues for k. The false “server” can then simply try all three untilthey find the right one.

Our first line of defence against this attack is to carry out a quickand cheap check that the pairing value is, as it should be, an elementof the cyclotomic subgroup of order Φ₁₂(P)=p⁴−p²+1. This can be done atalmost no cost by exploiting the frobenius action and checking that D.D^(p) ⁴ =D^(p) ² . A check that D≠1 should also be carried out. Howeverit is still possible that the cofactor within the cyclotomic subgroup,(p⁴−p²+1), sometimes called the “hard-part” of the final exponentiationof the pairing, might itself have small divisors.

We can block this avenue of attack by using a BN curve where thiscofactor is prime (and much greater than q). This can, for example, beachieved by choosing the BN curve parameter such that (p⁴−p²+1)/q is aprime, clearly much greater than q. We call such a BN curve “GT-Strong”.

Since BN curves are so plentiful we had no difficulty in finding suchcurves. Finding a “GT-Strong” curve is not hard to do, at the sacrificeof the extremely low Hamming weight for x. For example the curveparameter x=−400080600000408116₁₆ (see [B4]) results in a suitablecurve, while maintaining a relatively low Hamming weight for x, as isdesirable for efficient implementation [B1].

Now, since no small subgroups exist, we can omit the group membershiptest, with some savings.

It will be realised that although the use of “GT Strong” curves havebeen described above to be used with M-Pin protocols, “GT Strong” curvesmay be used in any pairing-based encryption protocols in which thefeatures of “GT Strong” curves are suitable. Moreover, it will berealised that an M-Pin and M-Pin Full protocol, and other protocolsdescribed herein, can also be realised without using “GT Strong” curves.

The next question is how best to calculate D^(1/m). This is far cheaperthan calculating a full pairing, but it still has some cost. Sometesting indicates that the fastest solution is to compress the pairingvalue to an element in

_(p) ₄ [B19] and to use the fast XTR method as described by Stam andLenstra [B21]. Our next idea is that instead of deploying a separatepairing server, why not get the M-Pin server itself to fulfil this role?After all M-Pin is an on-line protocol and an M-Pin server must beavailable in order to run it. Also it is a reasonable assumption thatthe M-Pin server will have superior computational capabilities. In factby combining these roles we achieve some further simplifications, as wewill see.

Once the client identity is authenticated using the protocol of Table 6,the protocol goes on to complete the key exchange. The two parts of theprotocol may be carefully combined for maximum efficiency. This protocolalso requires another general hash function H_(g)(.) which serialises,and hashes its input to a 256-bit value K. Both sides can then extractan Advanced Encryption Standard (AES) key from this value K. The fullprotocol is provided in Table 8.

TABLE 8 M-Pin Full Alice - identity ID_(a) Server Generates random x,w <q Generates random n,y < q A = H(ID_(a)) U = xA ID_(a),U → ← y m = −(x +y) V = m((s − a)A + aA) → A = H(ID_(a))) t = e(V,Q) g = t.e(U + yA,sQ)if g ≠ 1, reject the connection W = wA → ← r = t^(n) k = r^(w/m) k =e(nW,sQ) K = H_(g)(k) K = H_(g)(k)

Unbalancing the protocol is sufficient to endow it with the desirableproperty of “full forward secrecy”. The client does not have tocalculate a pairing, although the server has to calculate three. Theclient also has no requirement to do any arithmetic in the group

₂. Indeed all point multiplications are in the simpler group

₁. It is left as a simple exercise for the reader to exploit bilinearityto confirm that both client and server end up with the same key. Notethat since the first part of the protocol is just basically the originalM-Pin protocol, all of its features still apply.

The protocol outputs can be exploited to determine the PIN error andrespond to the client based on the extent of the PIN error as has beendescribed above with respect to the M-Pin protocol of Table 6. Forexample, the error handling process of FIG. 8 could be used with thisprocess before the key agreement part of the protocol is carried out.

The M-Pin Full protocol of Table 8 will now be described in more detailwith respect to FIGS. 9 and 10.

The steps at the client side will be described first with respect toFIG. 9. The beginning of the protocol has in fact already been describedwith respect to steps 6.1 to 6.6. However, it will be noted that theclient may store a separate parameter m=−(x+y) at step 6.6. Step 6.7 inFIG. 6 may be replaced with steps 9.1 to 9.4 of FIG. 9 and these stepswill now be described. The client 2 receives the value r, derived fromthe result of the pairing based on V and Q, from the server 3 at step9.1. By receiving this value, the client knows that the PIN entered wascorrect and that it has been authenticated. Alternatively, the clientmay also receive additional information indicating that it has beenauthenticated. The server has calculated a pairing required for theclient to derive the key and r is derived from the result t of thatpairing. Consequently, the client 2 does not need to calculate apairing. However, one of the inputs to the pairing was the clientsecret, masked with m, and the client now needs to take that maskingvalue m, unknown to the server, into account when it derives k from r.The result of the pairing t was raised to the power of n in the serverto obtain r and the client does not know the value of n. However, theclient does not need to recover the results of the pairing, it onlyneeds to establish the same k as the server. The client will thereforeneed to share information with the server to allow the server tocalculate the same key without sharing the actual masking value m. Atstep 9.2, the client therefore generates a random value w, which islower than q, and carries out a multiplication, on the elliptic curve,of the point A to find the coordinates of a new point W. The client thensends the coordinates of this point to the server. At step 9.3 theclient then raises the received value r to the power of w/m. At step 9.4it hashes the result k to a key K. It has thereby obtained a sessionkey, which can be used to encrypt further communication.

The steps of FIG. 9 may be carried out by the processor 21 of the client2 executing the instructions of the authentication program 25, describedwith respect to FIG. 2.

The steps on the server side will now be described with respect to FIG.10. Again, the first steps have already been described with respect tosteps 7.1 to 7.6 of FIG. 7. However, it will be noted that the servermay store the results t of the first pairing at step 7.5 so that it canderive the value r later. The server may carry out the first pairing toobtain t before it multiplies it with the result of the second pairing.If the value of g equals 1 or if the correct PIN is later entered, usingfor example an error handling process as described in FIG. 8, the server3 then proceeds with the key derivation process which will now bedescribed with respect to steps 10.1 to 10.5. At step 10.1 the servergenerates a random n which is lower than q. At step 7.5, the servercarried out a pairing calculation. One of the pairings took as inputsthe coordinates of V obtained from the client and the coordinates of thefixed point Q. The server now raises the result of that pairing to thepower of n to obtain a value r. The server then transmits this value tothe client at step 10.2. The server has therefore calculated the pairingrequired to derive the key for the client and all the heavy processingis in the server. The client 2 can then use the value of r to derive thekey as was described with respect to FIG. 9.

The server 3 then receives the coordinates of a point W from the clientat step 10.3. W has been obtained using a value w which will be used totransform r into the key at the client side. The server therefore needsthe coordinates of W to derive the same key, using bilinearity. At step10.4, the server multiplies, on the elliptic curve, the point W with n.The server then calculates another pairing which takes as input thecoordinates of the point resulting from the multiplication of W and nand the coordinates of the server secret sQ. The server then hashes theresults k of the pairing to obtain a key K. This is the same key as thekey obtained on the client side, as will be readily appreciated by usingthe bilinearity property of pairings.

The steps of FIG. 10 may be carried out by the processor 31 of theserver 3 executing the instructions of the server authentication program34, described with respect to FIG. 3.

It should be pointed out that protocol set out in Table 8, and describedwith respect to FIG. 9 and FIG. 10, is not entirely equivalent to thecombination of the protocol set out in Table 6 combined with SSL. Theclient identity is transmitted in the clear in M-Pin-Full, whereas withSSL the entire M-Pin protocol runs under cover of SSL, which thereforeprovides an anonymity feature. On the other hand M-Pin Full has fullforward secrecy, whereas SSL, although there are supportedforward-secret modes, is normally operated without this feature. Ofcourse it is always possible to run the M-Pin Full protocol inconjunction with SSL.

What if a false server which does not possess a valid secret passes backa value of r specially concocted so that r^(w/m) is a value it too cancalculate? Clearly simply sending a random r will not work, as thevalues of w and m are unknown to the attacker. However a plausibleattack might be to construct a value s=e(C,D) such that e(C, D)^(w/m) isknown. However to cancel the effect of the unknown m, the pairing musthave as a parameter a multiple of m, and V is the only such multipleavailable to it. The pairing must also have as a parameter A, as whenthe pairing is raised to the power of w, then W=wA is the only multipleof w known to it. But both of V and A are elements from

₁, and only one parameter from

₁ can be submitted to the pairing. Therefore such a value cannot beconstructed.

One consequence of this is that a so-called “phishing” attack will beineffective against this protocol, as the phishing website will not beable to establish the mutual key K.

Time Permits

The protocols may also include time permits. Time permits provide asimple alternate revocation capability. The idea, in some examples, isthat the server includes a time period in its construction of Alice'shashed identity. Unless Alice holds the corresponding “Time permit” forthe same period, she cannot complete the protocol. The time permit mayfor example be valid for a day or two days. However, it will be realisedthat time periods may be valid for much longer, for example, a week or amonth or longer than a week or a month.

In the protocols in Table 6 and Table 8 we can instead calculateA=H(ID_(α))+H_(T)(ID_(α)|Ti) on both sides of the protocol where T_(i)is a textual description of the i-th time period, H_(T)(.) is a hashfunction distinct from H(.) and | indicates concatenation. T_(i) may bean explicitly described time slot such as a day or a month.Consequently, the point A and the client secret sA are now also derivedfrom the time period for which the secret is valid. For the protocol towork correctly Alice must be issued by the Trusted Authority 4 with apermit s. H_(T)(ID_(α)|T_(i)) which gets added to her combinedPIN-plus-token secret s. H(ID_(α)) to create sA. Observe that the permitis of no use to any other party, and hence can be issued publicly, orsimply sent to Alice by email, or delivered via the server. As mentionedwith respect to FIG. 1, the client may store the Time Permit 27 instorage 23. A proof of security for this idea in the context of Bonehand Franklin IBE can be found in [B22]. The M-Pin protocol needs a smallmodification to continue to support the mechanism for determining PINerror described above and to carry out for example the PIN errorhandling process described with respect to FIG. 8. Since this error willbe reflected in the PIN-plus-token component and not in the time permit,the client must also send the server R=x. H(ID_(α)) in the first pass ofthe protocol.

A protocol based on the protocol of Table 6 and including time permitsis shown in Table 9. In the protocol of Table 9, the notation isdifferent to the notation used in the description of time permits above.In the protocol of Table 9, the identity and the client secret remainthe same as in Table 6 and Table 8 but we derive a new pointD=H(ID_(α))+H_(T)(ID_(α)|T_(i)) on both sides of the protocol whereT_(i) is still a textual description of the i-the time period, H_(T)(.)is a hash function distinct from H(.) and indicates concatenation. Also,the client secret sA is added to the time permit sT to obtain a newpoint from which point V is then derived. This is mathematicallyequivalent to the method described above although the notation isdifferent.

TABLE 9 M-Pin with time permits Alice - identity ID_(a) Server Generatesrandom x < q Generates random y < q A = H(ID_(a)) T =H_(T)(T_(i)|ID_(a)) D = A + T U = xD R = xA ID_(a),U,R → ← y V = −(x +y)((s − a)A + aA + sT) → D = H(ID_(a)) + H_(T)(T_(i)|ID_(a)) g =e(V,Q).e(U + yD,sQ) if g ≠ 1, reject the connection

With respect to the mechanism for determining PIN error, now the valueof g returned by the protocol is g=e(R+yA, Q)^(δ), where δ is the PINerror.

The protocol of Table 9 will now be described in more detail withrespect to FIGS. 11 and 12.

At step 11.1, the client 2 obtains a time permit sT from the TA. Theclient may obtain the coordinates of a point corresponding to the timepermit sT from the TA 4. The client may also obtain T_(i), indicatingthe time period for which the time permit is valid, from the TA or itmay generate it internally. For example, the time period may be the datefor which the time permit is valid, written in a specific format. Steps11.2 and 11.3 are the same as steps 6.1 and 6.2 of FIG. 6. The clientreceives a PIN guess 11′ from the user and it hashes its identity to apoint on the elliptic curve in

₁. At step 11.4, the client then concatenates the identity and a timeperiod T_(i) and hashes the concatenated string to a point T on theelliptic curve in

₁. The client then adds points A and points T, on the elliptic curve, toobtain the coordinates of a new point D at step 11.5. At step 11.6, theclient then carries out two multiplications on the curve. It generates arandom x and multiplies both point D and point A with x to obtain twonew points U and R. The value of x is lower than the prime order q ofthe groups

₁,

₂ and

_(T). The client then sends a commitment to the server 3, including theidentity of the client and the coordinates of points U and R, at step11.7. In some examples, the client may also send the server the timeperiod T_(i).

At step 11.8, the client receives a challenge in the same way as theclient received a challenge y in step 6.5 of FIG. 6. The value of y is arandom number also lower than q. The client then proceeds to calculatethe coordinates of a point V. In the protocol of Table 6, thecoordinates of this point were derived by multiplying a pointcorresponding to the recovered client secret with −(x+y). In theprotocol of Table 9, V is instead derived from the client secret sA thatcan be obtained from the token and the PIN and the time permit sTobtained from the TA. In more detail, at step 11.9, the client recoversthe client secret from the PIN and the token in the same was as in step6.6 of FIG. 6. The client may also add the two random values, x and y,together and multiple by −1 to obtain −(x+y). The client then adds, onthe elliptic curve, the point corresponding to the client secret sA anda point corresponding to the time permit sT to find a new point and thencarries out a multiplication, on the curve, of the new point with avalue −(x+y), to obtain the coordinates of point V. The client thensends the coordinates of this point to the server to allow the server toauthenticate the client. At step 11.10, the client may receive theresults of the authentication. Step 11.10 will be described in moredetail below.

With respect to FIG. 12, the server 3 obtains a time period T_(i) atstep 12.1. The server can obtain the time period from the TA 4, generateit internally if for example it is of a known format such as a date, orreceive it from the client 2. The server then receives the commitment toauthenticate at step 12.2, including the claimed identity of the clientand the coordinates of points U and R in

₁ on the elliptic curve. The server may also have received anothermessage from the client indicating that the client wishes to establish aconnection. The server may have invited the client to transmit theidentity and the coordinates of points U and R. In some examples, steps12.1 and 12.2 can be combined and the server receives the time periodT_(i) in the commitment. At step 12.3, the server then generates randomy, also lower than q, and transmits the value of y as a challenge to theclient. The server then uses the client identity and the time period tocalculate the coordinates of point D at step 12.4. At step 12.5, theserver receives the coordinates of a point V on the elliptic curve.

The server then calculates a product of pairings at step 12.6. The firstpairing takes as input point V and a point Q and maps them to an elementin

_(T). As indicated in the description of FIG. 11, V is a point on thecurve in

₁ obtained from a point corresponding to the client secret sA and apoint corresponding to the time permit sT. As already mentioned above,

is a fixed generator of

₂. The other pairing takes as input the coordinates of another point in

₁, obtained from points U and D, and the point corresponding to theserver secret sQ and maps them to an element in

_(T). The point sQ is of course another point in

₂. The point in

₁ is obtained by adding, on the elliptic curve, the point U in

₁, the coordinates of which were received from the client in thecommitment of step 12.2, and a point, of course also in

₁, obtained by multiplying point D, calculated in step 12.4, with therandom value y. The server obtains the product of the two pairings togive a value g. The calculation may be carried out as a multi-pairing inwhich the server calculates the product of the pairings as onecalculation rather than carrying out the separate pairings beforemultiplying them together. If the server secret sQ is split into twoparts, each stored by a separate module, each module may insteadcalculate a pairing based on its respective secret part and the twopairings may then be multiplied together to obtain e(U+yD, sQ). Themodule storing server secret s₁ would then calculate e(U+yD, s₁Q) andthe module storing server secret S₂ would then calculate e(U+yD, S₂Q).

As described with respect to FIG. 7, because of bilinearity, the valueof g should be equal to 1 if the correct PIN was entered and thereforethe correct client secret recovered. In step 12.7, the server 3 checksif the value of g equals to 1 and if it does equal to 1 it authenticatesthe client in step 12.8 and accepts the connection in step 12.9.Accepting the connection may involve transmitting a message to theclient to inform the client that the client has been authenticated.

If, conversely, the value of g does not equal to 1, the serverdetermines in step 12.10 that the client is not authenticated and canthen proceed in a number of ways. In step 12.11 it can either reject theconnection immediately or it can carry out an error handling process todetermine the extent to which the PIN must have been incorrect. It mayfor example perform the process described with respect to FIG. 8.

It will be realised that the order of some of the steps in FIGS. 11 and12 can be varied. For example, the PIN may not be received until it isused in step 11.9. Moreover, the time period and the time permit may notbe obtained in the client side until they are used in steps 11.4 andsteps 11.9 respectively. Furthermore, the server may hash the clientidentity after it receives the coordinates of point V. It may alsopostpone obtaining the time period until it uses it in step 12.4.Moreover, if the server does not support a more advanced error handlingprocess for errors in the second factor of the secret, the coordinatesof point R may not need to be sent to the server.

The server may use any suitable pairing, as the skilled person wouldappreciate, to carry out the pairings. For example, the client may usethe efficient R-ate pairing. Moreover, although it has been describedthat elliptic curves are used, any suitable algebraic curves may beused. For example, hyper-elliptic curves may be used instead of ellipticcurves.

A modification of the M-Pin Full protocol of Table 8, to also includetime permits is shown in Table 10.

TABLE 10 M-Pin Full with time permits Alice - identity ID_(a) ServerGenerates random x, w < q Generates random n, y < q A = H(ID_(a)) T =H_(T)(T_(i)|ID_(a)) D = A + T U = xD R = xA ID_(a),U,R → m = −(x + y) V= m((s − a)A + aA + sT) → ← y D = H(ID_(a)) + H_(T)(T_(i)|ID_(a)) t =e(V,Q) g = t.e(U + yD,sQ) if g ≠ 1, reject the connection W = wD → ← r =t^(n) k = r^(w/m) k = e(nW,sQ) K = H_(g)(k) K = H_(g)(k)

As mentioned above with respect to Table 9, now the value of g returnedby the protocol is g=e(R+yA, Q)^(δ), where δ is the PIN error.

As will be clear from Table 10, modifications may not be required to thekey derivation steps described with respect to FIGS. 9 and 10 when timepermits are used other than that, in step 9.2, instead of amultiplication of the point A, a multiplication of a point D is carriedout, with random value w lower than q, to obtain the coordinates ofpoint W and the coordinates of the new point W are transmitted to theserver. However, the steps of the beginning of the protocol may bemodified as described with respect to FIGS. 11 and 12.

It is important to bear in mind that, in some examples, the M-Pinprotocols are protocols that involve three parties, a single server,lots of clients, and a trusted authority (TA). One of the major benefitsof this is that a lot of responsibility is taken away from the serverinto the hands of the TA. In particular the server holds no data relatedto client secrets. This greatly mitigates the problem of the serverbeing hacked.

With careful design the server only needs to maintain a dynamic databaseof active client status. This database may be stored in the server, forexample in the storage 33 shown in FIG. 3, and loaded into temporarymemory of the processor 31 when the processor needs to quickly accessthe data in the database. For example if a new user successfully logsin, the server will know that they have been issued with validcredentials by the TA, and so does not need to do any further checking.The security expertise now lies solely in the hands of those thatcontrol the TA—the server can be trusted to be implemented andmaintained by a non-security expert.

The time permit mechanism is a way for the TA to take control ofrevocation, and also relieve the server of this potential burden. Sincetime permits require the master secret, their issuance is at thediscretion of the TA 4.

The TA may for example broadcast all time permits. A client may forexample be able to obtain its time permit 27 by accessing a websiteassociated with the TA. An imposter may also be able to obtain theclient's time permit but it will have no use for this time permit sinceit does not know the client secret sA. A decision may be made at thebeginning of each new time period in the TA about whether the TA wantsto continue to allow a client to use the system and the relevantprotocol to authenticate and/or derive keys and, if it does, it willpublish a time permit obtained from the master secret s associated withthe relevant server, the client identity and the time period for theclient to use.

In some examples, instead of time permits, or in addition to the timepermits, additional information can be included in the generation of theclient secret sA. The time permit sT can for example be replaced by

sT=s. H _(T)(ID_(α) |T _(i) |Z)

where Z is the data that the TA 4 wishes to send to a relying party. Theclient will receive the time permit and also the data in plain text. Itmay, in some examples, as part of the protocol, send this data to theauthentication server 3. This is because the authentication server hasto be able to calculate

D=H(ID_(α))+H _(T)(ID_(α) |T _(i) |Z)

as will be clear from the protocols of Tables 9 and 10.

With respect to FIGS. 11 and 12, the client 2 may obtain the additionaldata Z from the TA and send the additional data in, for example, thecommitment of step 11.7 for the server to receive at step 12.2.Alternatively, the server may receive the additional data in step 12.1,either from the client or the TA. Moreover, in step 11.4 the client alsouses the additional data Z to obtain the point T. The client mayconcatenate the client identity, the time period and the additional dataand hash the results using hash function H_(T) to a point T on theelliptic curve in

₁.

With respect to FIG. 13, a system is shown comprising a plurality ofclients 2 a, 2 b, an authentication server 3, a TA 4 and a relying party16. The relying party 16 may be a server or other computing device towhich the clients would like to establish a connection. For example, therelying party may store data which the client would like to access or itmay be hosting an internet shopping site.

The TA 4 provides a client 2 a with its time permits sT and theadditional data Z. The client may also obtain the time period T_(i), forexample from the TA or by generating it internally as described above.The authentication server may also obtain the time period T_(i). Theauthentication server 3 may also be provided with the additionalinformation Z through the client 2 a authenticating itself to theauthentication server. The authentication server 3 may issue the client2 a with an authentication token 17 once the client has beenauthenticated by the server and the client can present thisauthentication token to the relying party 16 which may then allow orprevent access to a resource based on the token. The token 17 maycontain fields for identity, success/failure, time-stamp and also thedata Z that was sent from the TA. The token 17 may be signed by theauthentication server, encrypted using AES, and the AES key may beencapsulated using Sakai-Kasahara Key Encryption (SAKKE). The encryptedtoken is sent to the client which, if it wants to, for example, accessthe relying party's content, must present it to the relying party 16.The relying party can decrypt the token, verify the signature andextract the data payload. Therefore, the data has been sent from the TA4 to the relying party 16 without being tampered with. In FIG. 13, onlythe first client 2 a is shown to be in possession of its time permit,additional data Z and the time period but all the clients using thesystem may be provided with their own time permits, additional data andrelevant time periods.

The TA maintains a database of rich real time analytic data that can beof use to the customer running the authentication server 3. The methoddescribed above for including additional information in the generationof the time permit can be used as a method for transmitting data via theclient, authenticating itself to the authentication server, to therelying party. Moreover, additional data about the client that may behelpful for the authentication server to carry out its PIN errorhandling process may be transmitted in this way. For example, some ofthe additional data considered in steps 8.11 and 8.13 of FIG. 8 may betransmitted to the authentication server in this way.

Another Key Agreement Protocol

An alternative to the M-Pin Full protocol of Table 8 may be used toestablish the keys and authenticate the client. The starting point isthe final protocol from Table 5. This is based on a full authenticatedkey exchange protocol using pairings, due to Wang [23], but withmodifications. In this protocol, instead of calculating g and checkingwhether g=1 before the key K is calculated, K is calculated and a valueM derived from the key K is then sent from the client to the server toallow the server to carry out the authentication of the client. Thisprotocol is shown in Table 11.

TABLE 11 Protocol for Key Agreement and Authentication Alice - identityID_(a) Server Generates random x,m < q Generates random y,w < q A =H₁(ID_(a)) U = xA V = m((s − a)A + aA) ID_(a),U,V → A = H₁(ID_(a)) W =wA t = e(yV,Q) ← t, W k = t^((x+1)/m) k = e(y(A + U),sQ) K = H(k|xW) K =H(k|wU) M = H(ID_(a)|U|V|W|K) N = H(ID_(a)|U|V|W|K) M → if M ≠ N, refusethe connection

As with the protocol of Table 8, the client no longer has to calculate apairing. The server has to calculate two. The client also has norequirement to do any arithmetic in the group

₂. Indeed all point multiplications are in the simpler group

₁. Again, it is left as a simple exercise for the reader to confirm thatboth client and server end up with the same key. It will be observedthat, unlike the M-Pin Full of protocol of Table 8, the alternativeprotocol of Table 11 is not a zero knowledge proof protocol since a hashof the key is in fact sent to the server.

The protocol of Table 11 can also be exploited to determine the PINerror and respond to the client based on the extent of the PIN. Forexample, the error handling process of FIG. 8 could be used with thisprotocol before the key agreement part of the protocol is carried out.

Set-Up

Examples of set-up processes will now be described in more detail withrespect to FIGS. 14 to 16.

With respect to FIG. 14, the TA 4 receives a request from a server 3 toobtain a server secret at step 14.1. The TA may then provide theparameters for an elliptic curve and details of hash functions to beused in the authentication process to the server at step 14.2. The TAmay have already selected an elliptic curve and details of the hashfunctions to be used in the authentication process. The elliptic curveparameters and the hash function details may have been pre-selected andthe information 46 stored in storage 43 of the TA. The TA may also havepublished the parameters of the curve, details of the hash function andother public information for allowing the server to carry out anauthentication process. Consequently, step 14.2 may involve directingthe server to where the information is published. Alternatively, it maysend the information to the server. If the server receives the serverauthentication program 34 from the TA, the program may include theparameters and other information that the server requires.

The TA then generates a master secret s which is unique to the server atstep 14.3. At step 14.4, the TA then generates a point Q on the ellipticcurve and obtains a point sQ by multiplying, on the selected curve, thepoint Q with the master secret s. Since s is unique for each server insome implementations, the identity for the server is not required in thegeneration of Q and sQ in those implementations. Point Q may bearbitrarily selected. The TA sends the coordinates of point Q and pointsQ to the server 3 in a secure communication channel. In some examples,step 14.2 may be combined with step 14.4 and the TA 4 may send all theinformation the server requires at step 14.4. The TA may also receiveand add identifying information for the server to a record 45 in storage43, which indicates the servers and clients that use the system, at step14.5. The record may for example be a database or other data structure.

At some time later, the TA 4 receives the identity of a client 2 thatwants to authenticate with the server 4 at step 14.6. It may for examplereceive the identity from the server, or directly from the client withan indication of which server it wants to authenticate to. The TAretrieves the master secret s that is unique to the server that theclient wishes to authenticate with at step 14.7 and generates a clientsecret that it sends to the client. The client secret is generated byhashing the client identity to the point A on the curve, as has beendescribed above, and multiplying this point with the master secret s toobtain a new point sA on the curve. The TA may also generate a timepermit for the client that it publishes or sends to the client at step14.8. The TA may also add the identity of the client to the record 45 ofclients and servers that use the system, at step 14.9. If the parametersof the curve and details of the hash function have not been publishedand will not be provided to the client by other means, the TA may alsosend that information, along with other information the client may need,to the client.

At some time later, at step 14.10, when the time period for which thetime permit was issued expires, the TA 4 checks its records 45 anddetermines the clients that are still entitled to use the system. The TApublishes new time permits for the clients that are still entitled touse the system at step 14.11. For example, clients may need to pay a feeto use the authentication service and the TA may only generate andpublish time permits for the clients that have paid their fees.

An example of a set-up process in the client 2 will now be describedwith respect to FIG. 15. The process may be triggered by the clientattempting to access a server or a resource for which an authenticationserver 3, using an authentication system controlled by the TA, acts asan authenticating server. The client receives the client secret from theTA at step 15.1. It also obtains the parameters of the elliptic curveand details of the hash functions to use from the TA at step 15.2. Forexample, if the TA has published this information on a website, theclient may obtain the information, along with other public informationit may need to authenticate to a server, from a website. In someexamples, the client may be provided with the initialisation program 24from the TA and the program may already include the information. Theinitialisation program may be provided to the client before the clientreceives its secret. Using a user interface, the client invites a userto enter a PIN at step 15.3. The initialisation program, run in thebrowser of the client, from the TA may provide a graphical userinterface for the user to enter a PIN. At step 15.4, the clientgenerates the token. The client may use the specified hash function tohash the identity of the client to a point A on the curve. The clientthen multiplies, on the curve, the point A with the received PIN valueto obtain a new point αA. It subtracts this point from the pointcorresponding to the client secret to obtain the token (s−α)A. It thenstores this token 10 in storage along with its identity.

An example of a set-up process of the server 3 will now be described.The server sends the TA 4 a request to register at step 16.1. At step16.2, it receives the coordinates of point Q and the point correspondingto the server secret sQ and stores these securely. At some time later,when a client attempts to authenticate, it sends the TA 4 the identityof the client. It may also look up the curve parameters and hashfunction details, along with other information it may need, to allow itto carry out the protocol to authenticate the client.

It will be realised, that the process described with respect to FIGS.14, 15 and 16 are just examples and other processes for carrying outset-up in the TA, the client and the server are contemplated. Forexample, if no time permits are used, the steps related to time permitswill not be carried out. Moreover, although the steps of FIGS. 14, 15and 16 have been described in a particular order, the order of somesteps may be varied as will be realised by the skilled person.

Covert Channel

Although the method of FIG. 8 was described as an error handlingprocess, a similar method could also be used if an error has beenentered on purpose. For example, a user who is being coerced by anotherperson to enter the PIN in front of the other person, in order, to forexample, access the user's bank account or another resources that theuser wants to protect, can enter a pre-agreed error in the PIN. Theauthentication server will recognise the specific error as an indicationthat the user is being forced to enter its PIN and will reject theconnection. It may automatically also take further steps to assist theuser. The system therefore provides a covert channel.

The covert channel can also be used to transmit other information to theserver than information indicating that the user is being coerced toenter a PIN. The difference between the entered PIN and the actual PINmay not be an error at all but a message, or part of a message, from theclient that will appear on the server side without actually having beensent between the client and the server.

The covert channel in the system described above can be considered anarrow-band subliminal channel. It allows a small amount of informationto be subliminally passed between a client and a server (who have beenissued with compatible secrets), while looking to an external observerlike (and in fact being indistinguishable from) a normal (failed) run ofthe protocol.

In some applications where the subliminal channel is used to communicatemessages to the server, some of the protocols described herein may notbe used to authenticate the client but only to allow information toappear at the server without the client actually transmitting theinformation. Assuming again that the PIN only includes 4 digits, if theuser wants to communicate a message or data that requires more than 4characters, the client can obtain a number of different secrets from theTA and set up a PIN for each secret.

An example of this process of communicating information will now bedescribed with respect to FIGS. 17, 18 and 19. The process will bedescribed in the context of making credit card information from theclient 2 appear in the server 3 without the client sending the creditcard information to the server. However, it will be realised that themethod can be used to communicate any string of digits, representing amessage, to a server without actually sending the string to the client.

The steps carried out in the TA will now be described. At step 17.1, theTA 4 receives a request from a client to register in order to allow itto securely communicate information to a server. The message maycomprise the credit card information it wants to communicate to theserver. At step 17.2, the TA 4 proceeds to issue multiple client secretsassociated with the received credit card information. The client secretsmay comprise one client secret for each 4 digits of the credit cardnumber plus the CVC2 number, or other security code, on the back of thecard. The client secret may also comprise one client secret for theentire credit card number. Consequently, if the credit card number has16 digits plus the 3 digits on the back of the card, the TA may need toissue six client secrets. The client secrets are established using themaster secret s that was also used to derive the server secret of theserver to which the client wants to communicate the credit cardinformation. Identifying information for each part of the credit cardnumber plus the security code, and identifying information for theentire credit card number may be selected and hashed to points on thecurve and the points are then multiplied with the master secret asdescribed above to obtain the secrets. The identifying information maybe any information that does not reveal the information in the creditcard number. The identifying information will be referred to herein asthe identities associated with the various secrets. It will be realisedthat the description above of how the client secrets for the credit cardnumber are generated is just one example and the client secrets may beestablished in any suitable way. If the client also needs to transmitthe expiry date of the credit card and other information, additionalsecrets may be required.

At step 17.3, the TA 4 also pre-selects the PIN numbers for the clientsecrets, instead of the user selecting the PIN numbers. Some of the PINnumbers may each correspond to 4 digits that appear on the card, inorder. Consequently, the first client secret may have the first 4 digitsof the card number selected as the PIN number, the second client secrethas the second 4 digits of the card number selected as the PIN number,and so on. The fifth client secret has the CVC2 number and a 0 for nullselected as the PIN number. Furthermore, the sixth client secret has thenumber of digits the card number is plus the number of digits of theCVC2 number on the back selected as the PIN. Consequently, if it is a 16digit credit card number plus a 3 digit CVC2 number on the back of thecard, the PIN would be ‘1900’.

For example, for a card number of 6456 6565 7878 9898 plus CVC2 of 767,the first PIN is selected as 6456, the second PIN is selected as 6565,the third pin is selected as 7878 and the fourth pin is selected as9898. The fifth PIN is selected as 7670. Moreover, the sixth PIN may beselected as ‘1900’ as described above.

The PINs are then extracted from the secrets to generate 6 tokens andthe tokens are sent to the client in a response at step 17.4. Theidentities associated with the various secrets are also sent to theclient. They may be included in the response at step 17.4. The tokensand the identities may be sent to a software wallet in the client. Forexample, the software wallet may be located in the storage of thebrowser. Alternatively, the secrets, the identities and the PINs aresent to the client and the client may itself generate the PINs. The TAmay also issue a server secret to the server to which the client wantsto send the credit card information if it has not done so already.

The steps carried out in the client side will now be described withrespect to FIG. 18. At step 18.1, the client 2 sends a message to the TA4 with the credit card information. At step 18.2, it receives a responsewith the tokens for six client secrets and the identities associatedwith the various client secrets back from the TA 4. Alternatively, itmay receive the six client secrets and the associated PINs and mayextract the PINs from the secrets to generate the tokens itself. At sometime later, the client starts the program for communicating secretinformation in the covert channel to a server 3. This program may formpart of the authentication program 25 or may be another program storedin memory 22. It may be provided to the client via a web interface fromthe server 3.

At step 18.3, the client sends a message to the server indicating thatit will commence communicating information to the server in a covertchannel. At step 18.4, the client sets a parameter P to equal the numberof PINs that will be required for the whole message to be communicated.The parameter P will control how many times the difference between anactual PIN and the PIN that was used in the client will need to bedetermined in the server. In the credit card example mentioned above, Pwill be set to 6, since there are 6 separate client secrets. The clientalso sets a counter p to be zero. At step 18.5, the client increases thevalue of the counter p to 1 to prepare to communicate the first part ofthe message. It then transmits a commitment to the server and receives achallenge from the server at step 18.5. The client then retrieves thestored token associated with the first part of the message at step 18.6.At step 18.7, it uses an “incorrect” PIN guess “0000” to create a“secret” and generate V. The exchange of a commitment and a challengeand the calculation of V can be carried out as described with respect tothe protocols of Tables 6, 8, 9, 10 or 11 above. For example, the clientmay use steps 6.2 to steps 6.6 of FIG. 6 or the corresponding stepsdescribed for the other protocols. Instead of receiving the PIN from theuser, the client uses the PIN “0000” to create a “dummy secret” that isthen used to create V.

The “secret” will not be the real client secret issued by the TA for theidentity associated with the part of the message since the PIN used tocreate the secret is not the PIN originally entered by the TA to splitthe secret into a PIN and a token.

The client then checks at step 18.8 if p is smaller than the parameterP. If it is smaller than P, steps 18.5 to 18.8 are repeated for thetoken associated with the second part of the message. Steps 18.5 to 18.8are repeated until the whole message has been communicated to the serverwithout actually sending any parts of the message. Using the protocol ofTable 6 as an example, each time step 18.5 is repeated, p is increasedby 1 and the identity for the next part of the message is used togenerate a new U and the identity and the new U are transmitted to theserver. Moreover, each time step 18.6 is repeated, the token associatedwith the new part of the message is combined with an “incorrect” PINguess “0000” to generate the coordinates of a new V which is sent to theserver. When it is determined at step 8 that the counter p equals theparameter P, the program ends.

The steps on the server side will now be described with respect to FIG.19. The server receives a message at step 19.1, indicating that theclient will begin to communicate information in a covert channel. Theserver receives a commitment and generates and transmits a challenge atstep 19.2. At step 19.3, the receives the coordinates of point V and itdetermines the difference between the PIN used in the client to derive Vand the PIN that was used to generate the token in the first place. Theserver can do this since it has been issued with its own secret sQ fromthe TA. The server may carry out the exchange of a commitment and achallenge and the pairing calculation that takes V as an input as hasbeen described with respect to the protocols of Table 6, 8, 9, 10 or 11above. For example, the client may use steps 7.2 to steps 7.5 of FIG. 7or the corresponding steps described for the other protocols. The serverdetermines the value of 8 from the value obtained for g and therelationship g=e(U+yA, Q)^(δ) when a protocol without time permits areused or the relationship g=e(R+yA, Q)^(δ) when time permits are used.

The client then stores this PIN difference at step 19.4 and checks ifthe client will send any more information at step 19.5. If the clientsends more information, the server repeats steps 19.2 to 19.4 until ithas recovered all information that the client wants to communicate. Insome implementations, the client may send the value of P to the serveras well so that the server already knows how many times it will need torepeat the PIN difference determination process. When the serverdetermines that the full message has been received, it then proceeds toprocess the message. Consequently, using the credit card example above,the server cycles through the process until it has received64566565787898987670 and also the information associated with the lastsecret. The information obtained in the last iteration of the PINdifference determination process, associated with the last secretcorresponding to the whole credit card number, is used to make sure theserver has assembled the right digits, by exposing the extent of the PINerrors on the client secrets.

The server may for example forward the credit card number in a token,and over a secure channel, to another server to allow the client tocarry out a transaction with that server using the credit cardinformation, without actually ever sending any credit card information.The other server may for example be a server operated by a bank.

In some examples, the secret based on the entire credit card number maybe based on a hash of the credit card number plus the security code. Theserver can then check what it has assembled, using the PIN differencedetermination process, against the hash of the credit card plus securitycode “h(6456656578789898767) and using the extent of the PIN error forthat secret to make sure it knows how many digits are supposed to beculled from the information assembled, in this case 19.

It will be appreciated that no credit card numbers ever have to bestored on the client. No credit card numbers are ever transmitted to theserver. The server does not need to store credit card numbers, it onlycreates them transiently when it is instructed to make a payment, byassembling the credit card number and CVC2 number from the extent of thePIN error. The client secrets act as a tokenisation system, which can bestored on an end user software wallet, or even by the merchant in theirsystem when they need to instruct the payment processor to make apayment. Moreover, it will be appreciated that although a CVC2 code hasbeen referred to above, the information to be assembled on the serverside can, additionally or alternatively, include other security codeinformation, expiry date information and/or other information.

It will be realised that the processes described with respect to FIGS.17, 18 and 19 are only an example of the processes in the TA, the clientand the server for recovering secret client information in the server.Other implementations are contemplated. For example, in some examples,the client and the server may only exchange a commitment and a challengeat the beginning of the process. The client may send the ID of all theparts of the message in the same commitment or the same ID may be usedfor all parts. If the same ID is used for all parts of the message,either the plurality of tokens and PINs will need to be extracted fromthe same secret or the TA will use a number of master secrets togenerate a number of client secrets.

The uses of a covert channel as described above are various. Forexample, the M-Pin error determination process may be used to allow theserver to recover a credit card number along with the expiry date andother information required to carry out a purchase, as described above.Alternatively, it may be used to communicate a password, bank accountdetails or other information which the client does not wish to transmitacross a communication medium.

The protocols described herein can be used by any person or organisationthat wants to authenticate a client or clients to a computing system orresource. For example, the client may want to transmit confidentialinformation to the server and the server may want to establish that theclient is who it says it is and the client wants to encrypt theinformation it sends. The protocols may also be used within a company ororganisation. For example, an organisation may set up its own TA and anumber of authentication servers and issue the members of theorganisation with IDs. That way all communication within theorganisation may be securely transmitted.

Whilst specific examples and embodiments of the invention have beendescribed, the scope of the invention is defined by the appended claimsand not limited to the examples and embodiments described. The inventioncould therefore be implemented in other ways and numerous modificationsand alternative arrangements can be contemplated, as would beappreciated by those skilled in the art.

It will be realised that the known protocols, their problems and thedesired features of a secure protocol are described to provide contextonly. Some of the features described as important, main or desiredfeatures may be important, main and desired features for someapplications only and may not be present in all embodiments of theinvention. As mentioned above, the embodiments of the invention are notlimited to protocols that meet all or a specific number of the 10security features described above.

Although specific protocols have been shown in the Tables in thedescription, variations and modifications to the protocols arecontemplated. As specific examples, instead of the authentication servercarrying out the pairing that takes V as an input, the client mayoff-load this pairing to a separate server. Moreover, the server may notdirectly take V as an input to the pairing calculation but derive aninput to the pairing calculation based on V. For example, it maymultiply V by a value before using it as an input. Depending on theimplementation, it may then also need to multiply an input to thepairing based on the server secret with the same value so that, usingbilinearity, the server will still be able to authenticate the client.

It will be realised that although it was described in some of theexamples that an R-ate pairing can be used, any type of suitable pairingmay be used. For example, the Weil pairing, the Tate pairing and the atepairing are other pairings that may be used instead of the R-atepairing.

Although the client secret has been described to be split into a tokenand a PIN, the invention is not limited to two-factor authentication. Ashas been mentioned above, the client secret can be split into any numberof factors and the factor which is not stored is not limited to a PIN.The PIN may for example be replaced with a biometric, such as a fingerprint, face recognition data or an iris scan, or with a soft biometric.A soft biometric may be provided by biometrics data categorised intocategories in order to reduce the data representing the biometrics. Forexample, all finger prints may be categorised based on characteristicsinto 10000 categories and the soft biometrics data indicates thecategory of the user's finger print. In some examples, the secret may besplit into a token, a PIN and a soft biometric. In some examples, thePIN and/or the token may be replaced by, or further factors of thesecret may include, voice data or the geolocation of the user.

Although it has been described that the client and the server cancommunicate over a data network such as the Internet, any communicationmedium is contemplated. For example, the protocols in the examplesdescribed herein may be used to send information using wirelesscommunication technology but also non-wireless communication technology.As a few specific examples, the protocols may for example be used tosend information using 3G, 4G, Bluetooth, Infrared communication orfibre optics. The protocols may also be used in communication methodsthat include broadcasting, digital storage media or even printedinformation.

Although it has been described that the server will be issued withsecret

, where

is a fixed generator of

₂, Q may alternatively be derived from an identity for the server, as isthe case in for example the protocol in Table 5.

Moreover, although it has been described that the client extracts thePIN received from the user from the secret and stores the token thatremains, the client may in some circumstances carry out some processingto the received PIN before it extracts the obtained value from thetoken. For example, it may multiply or add a certain number to the PIN.Similarly, when the client receives a PIN guess, the client carries outthe same transformation of the PIN guess as it did with the original PINand then uses the transformed PIN to recover the secret.

Although it has been described with respect to M-Pin and M-Pin Full thatthe server carries out authentication before it carries out the keyagreement, the client and the server may proceed directly to the keyagreement. For example, such a protocol is shown in Table 11. In Table11, the authentication takes place after the keys have been established.However, in some applications authentication may not be necessary orauthentication may have been carried out using an alternative process.In other words, the server may not calculate the value of g and check ifit is equal to 1 in the protocols of Tables 8 and 10, but will insteadcalculate the value of r from the result of the pairing based on V andreturn the value of r to the client for the client to derive its key.Consequently, in Tables 8, 9 and 10, g is not calculated and compared to1 but the other steps of the protocol may remain the same.

Moreover, although it has been described that the trusted authority isan important part of the system, it will be realised that there may beapplications, where the security requirements are lower, where a trustedauthority is not used.

INCORPORATION BY REFERENCE

The entire contents of all patents, published patent applications, andother references cited herein are hereby expressly incorporated hereinin their entireties by reference.

REFERENCES

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1. A computer-implemented method in a first entity for authenticatingitself to a second entity by proving to the second entity that it is inpossession of a full secret without sending the full secret to thesecond entity, the method comprising: receiving in the first entity aninput from a user, the full secret having been divided into at least afirst factor and a second factor and the input relating to the secondfactor of the secret; reconstructing in the first entity the full secretfrom at least the first factor and the input; and carrying out acalculation in the first entity using the reconstructed full secret andsending the results of the calculation to the second entity, wherein theresults provide an input to a pairing calculation in the second entity.2. A method according to claim 1, wherein the secret corresponds to apoint on an algebraic curve and the pairing calculation comprises apairing on the algebraic curve.
 3. A method according to claim 2,wherein the calculation in the first entity further comprisesmultiplying, on the algebraic curve, a point corresponding to thesecret, or a point derived from at least a point corresponding to thesecret, in the first entity to obtain another point on the algebraiccurve and wherein sending the results of the calculation to the secondentity comprises sending the coordinates of that other point.
 4. Amethod according to claim 2, wherein the secret of the first entity hasbeen issued by a trusted authority and is based on the identity of thefirst entity and a master secret stored by the trusted authority.
 5. Amethod according to claim 2, wherein the algebraic curve is an ellipticcurve, and the method further comprises generating a random value x inthe first entity, where x is lower than q; calculating A=H₁(ID_(α)) inthe first entity, where ID_(α) is the identity associated with the firstentity and H₁ is a hash function that hashes the identity to a point onthe elliptic curve; calculating another point U=xA on the curve in thefirst entity and transmitting ID_(α) and U to the second entity; andreceiving a random value y generated in the second entity, wherein y islower than q, and wherein carrying out said calculation in the firstentity using the reconstructed full secret and sending the results tothe second entity comprises calculating a new point V=−(x+y)((s−α)A+αA)and sending the coordinates of V to the second entity, wherein the firstfactor comprises the coordinates of a point (s−α)A on the ellipticcurve, the input comprises a value α, the secret sA is issued by atrusted authority and obtained by the trusted authority by multiplyingthe point A, corresponding to the identity associated with the firstentity, with a master secret s and the pairing calculation comprises amapping

₁×

₂→

_(T) where

₁ and

₂ are distinct and q is the order of the groups

₁,

₂ and

_(T).
 6. A method according to claim 4, further comprising receiving atime permit in the first entity and wherein the calculation using thereconstructed full secret also uses the time permit to obtain theresults to send to the second entity, wherein the time permit is issuedby the trusted authority and the time permit is derived from a timeperiod during which the first entity is entitled to complete theprotocol.
 7. A method according to claim 4, further comprising receivinga time permit in the first entity and wherein the calculation using thereconstructed secret also uses the time permit to obtain the results tosend to the second entity, wherein the time permit is issued by thetrusted authority and the time permit is derived from a time periodduring which the first entity is entitled to complete the protocol andadditional data.
 8. A method according to claim 2, wherein the pairingcalculation forms part of a calculation in the second entity toauthenticate the first entity and wherein the method further comprisesreceiving a response from the second entity indicating that an input didnot correspond to the second factor and inviting the first entity to tryto authenticate again.
 9. A method according to claim 2, wherein themethod further comprises, in response to sending the results of saidcalculation to allow the second entity to authenticate the first entity,receiving a response from the second entity and deriving in the firstentity an encryption key from a data value in the response, the datavalue in the response having been obtained from the pairing of saidpairing calculation.
 10. A method according to claim 9, wherein derivingan encryption key comprises raising the data value to the power of avalue unknown to the second entity and hashing the results to obtain theencryption key and the method further comprises using the encryption keyto encrypt messages to the second entity and decrypt messages receivedfrom the second entity.
 11. A method according to claim 1, wherein thesecond factor comprises a PIN or a soft biometric.
 12. Acomputer-implemented method of authenticating a first entity in a secondentity by determining that the first entity must be in a possession of asecret without the second entity receiving the secret itself, the methodcomprising: receiving in the second entity a result of a calculationcarried out in the first entity, the calculation using a secret havingbeen reconstructed in the first entity from at least a first factor ofthe secret and a second factor of the secret; and carrying out acalculation in the second entity to determine that the first entity isin possession of the secret, wherein the calculation comprises a pairingcalculation based on the result from the first entity.
 13. A methodaccording to claim 12, wherein the first entity secret corresponds to apoint on an algebraic curve and wherein the pairing calculationcomprises a pairing on the algebraic curve.
 14. A method according toclaim 13, wherein the calculation in the second entity comprises a firstpairing based on the result received from the first entity and a secondpairing based on a secret of the second entity.
 15. A method accordingto claim 14, wherein the calculation in the second entity comprisescalculating a product of pairings to determine whether the first entityis in possession of the secret, the product of pairings comprises thefirst and the second pairing and wherein the method further comprisesthe second entity determining whether the product of pairings is equalto a predetermined value and authenticating the first entity if theproduct is equal to the predetermined value.
 16. A method according toclaim 14, wherein the secret of the first entity has been issued by atrusted authority and is based on the identity of the first entity and amaster secret stored by a trusted authority and wherein the secret ofthe second entity has also been issued by the trusted authority and isbased on a fixed point on the curve and said master secret.
 17. A methodaccording to claim 13, wherein the algebraic curve is an elliptic curveand the method further comprises receiving, from the first entity, anidentity associated with the first entity and the coordinates of a pointU on the elliptic curve; generating a random value y, lower than q, inthe second entity and sending the value to the first entity; calculatingA=H₁(ID_(α)) in the second entity, where ID_(α) is the identityassociated with the first entity and H₁ is a hash function that hashesthe identity to a point on the elliptic curve, wherein receiving in thesecond entity a result of a calculation comprises receiving thecoordinates of a point V from the first entity, whereV=−(x+y)((s−α)A+αA), x is another random value lower than q and thesecret of the first entity is issued by a trusted authority andcorresponds to a point sA wherein s is a master secret, the first factorcomprises the coordinates of a point (s−α)A on the elliptic curve andthe second factor comprises a value α, wherein carrying out thecalculation in the second entity comprises calculating a product ofpairings comprising a first pairing e(V, Q) and a second pairing e(U+yA,sQ) to obtain g=e(V, Q). e(U+yA, sQ) where Q is a fixed point on theelliptic curve and sQ is another point on the curve corresponding to asecret of the second entity and each of the first and second pairings isa mapping

₁×

₂→

_(T) where

₁ and

₂ are distinct and q is the order of the groups

₁,

₂ and

_(T), and wherein the method further comprises authenticating the firstentity if g=1.
 18. A method according to claim 14, further comprisingobtaining a time period during which the first entity is entitled tocomplete the protocol and using the time period and an identity of thefirst entity to derive an input to the second pairing.
 19. A methodaccording to claim 14, further comprising obtaining a time period duringwhich the first entity is entitled to complete the protocol andadditional data and using the time period, the additional data and anidentity of the first entity to derive an input to the second pairing.20. A method according to claim 14, further comprising the second entitycalculating an encryption key to be used in the second entity forfurther communication between the first entity and the second entity,the calculation of the encryption key comprising calculating a pairingbased on an identity associated with the first entity and the secondentity secret, and transmitting a value derived from a result of thefirst pairing to the first entity, to allow the first entity to derivean encryption key to be used in the first entity.
 21. A method accordingto claim 14, wherein the second entity comprises at least twocomponents, each storing a part of the secret of the second entity, andwherein carrying out the second pairing comprises carrying out a pairingin each component, each pairing taking as an input a respective part ofthe secret of the second entity, and then carrying out a product of thepairings carried out in the at least two components.
 22. A methodaccording to claim 13, further comprising, in response to determiningthat the first entity is not in possession of the first entity secret,determining the extent of an error in the second factor and determiningwhether to invite the first entity to authenticate again based on thedetermined extent of the error in the second factor.
 23. A methodaccording to claim 12, wherein the second factor comprises a PIN or asoft biometric.
 24. A method according to claim 12, wherein the curve isan elliptic curve having a Barreto-Naehrig BN curve parameter such that(p⁴−p²+1)/q is a prime, where p is the prime modulus and q is the orderof the groups

₁,

₂ and

_(T) of the mapping

₁×

₂→

_(T) on the curve.
 25. Apparatus for authenticating itself to anotherentity by proving to the other entity that it is in possession of a fullsecret without revealing the secret to the other entity, the apparatuscomprising: at least one memory having instructions stored thereon; andat least one processor programmed to execute the instructions to performthe following operations: receiving in the apparatus an input from auser, the full secret having been divided into at least a first factorand a second factor and the input relating to the second factor of thesecret; reconstructing in the apparatus the secret from at least thefirst factor and the input; and carrying out a calculation in theapparatus using the reconstructed secret and sending the results of thecalculation to the other entity, wherein the results provide an input toa pairing calculation.
 26. Apparatus according to claim 25, wherein thecalculation using the reconstructed secret also uses a time permitreceived in the apparatus to obtain the results to send to the otherentity, wherein the time permit is issued by a trusted authority and thetime permit is derived from a time period during which the apparatus isentitled to complete the protocol.
 27. Apparatus according to claim 25,wherein at least one memory further comprises instructions for derivingin the apparatus an encryption key from a data value in a messagereceived from the other entity, in response to sending the other entitythe result of the calculation, the data value in the response beingobtained from the results of a pairing of said pairing calculation. 28.An apparatus for authenticating another entity by determining that theentity must be in a possession of a secret without receiving the secretitself, the apparatus comprising: at least one memory havinginstructions stored thereon; and at least one processor programmed toexecute the instructions to perform the following operations: receivingin the apparatus a result of a calculation carried out in the otherentity, the calculation using the secret reconstructed from at least afirst factor of the secret and at least a second factor of the secret;and carrying out a calculation in the apparatus to determine that theother entity is in possession of the secret, wherein the calculationcomprises a first pairing based on the result from the other entity anda second pairing based on a secret associated with the apparatus. 29.Apparatus according to claim 28, wherein the at least one memory furthercomprises instructions for transmitting a value derived from the firstpairing to the other entity to allow the other entity to derive anencryption key and deriving a key in the apparatus from a pairing takingan input corresponding to the secret associated with the apparatus. 30.Apparatus according to claim 28, wherein the apparatus comprises twocomponents, each comprising a separate memory of the at least one memorystoring instructions and each having a separate processor, of the atleast one processor, for executing the instructions, wherein the secretassociated with the apparatus comprises two parts and wherein carryingout the second pairing comprises carrying out a pairing in eachcomponent, taking as an input a respective part of the secret associatedwith the apparatus, and carrying out a product of the pairings carriedout in the at least two components.